Theme 7: The Cold War and Decolonisation Flashcards
Origins of the Cold War
Kennan’s ‘Long Telegram’ described the neurotic nature of the Kremlin’s foreign policy - perpetuated idea of US and Soviet forms of government being deeply incompatible with each other
Two distinctive approaches to describing the Cold War
Classical accounts of cold war scholarship shaped around a sense of antagonism between the US and USSR, capitalism and communism (John Lewis Gaddis)
Regional cold wars - describes how cold war tensions and rhetoric influenced the state of affairs in Latin America, Asia and the Middle East (e.g. Greg Grandin, Avi Schlaim)
What does Westad argue about the nature of the Cold War?
- cold war not just a superpower conflict between US and USSR, mainly played out in Europe
- differing views of the state (role of state in economics) and development critical to cold war - both communism and capitalism are enlightenment ideologies, both have faith in progress, but with radically divergent views on how growth can be achieved
- US and soviet intervention shapes states and societies in the third world and in turn third world elites frame their political agendas in conscious response to cold war ideology and policy
- cold war in terms of hegemonies, but in a different way to the earlier system of imperial dominance
Different explanations of the nature of decolonisation
Classical definition = a transfer of power (term gains traction after c1955) - to describe a new and strange phenomenon of withdrawing sovereignty
Alternative explanation - doesn’t see transfer of power as driven from Westminster, but but different forces in different colonial contexts, like the rise of nationalism (e.g. way Nkrumah was able to build a hugely popular political party in Ghana)
Example of an anti-colonial liberation movement
e.g. Algeria’s long war of liberation 1954-62 (FLN waging a ‘diplomatic revolution’ making good use of intl diplomacy to put pressure on Fr)
What does Martin Thomas argue about decolonisation?
decolonisation can only be understood in an interconnected and global way
Context of the Bandung Conference
Context - born of possibilities and anxieties of decolonisation and the cold war. Nehru talked of a vision of a new age beginning, despite the violence of partition
Decolonisation: 1946, Lebanon, Syria;
1947, India/Pakistan;
1948 Palestine/Israel
1952 Free Officers come to power in Egypt
1954: Indochina/Vietnam; Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria
Colombo Conference
But also cold war and nuclear tension: Korean war (1950-53)
Significance of the Bandung Conference
‘First interconnected congress of coloured peoples in the history of mankind’ - Suharto
^ stressed diversity of delegates in terms of race, religion, ideology etc…
Richard Wright - ‘a confederation of the world’s underdogs’
Many of the leaders here are now leaders of newly independent states (difference to movements pre-WW2, League against Imperialism, meeting at Manchester in 1927 to discuss independence)
How did the Cold War influence the proceedings at Bandung?
Cold War tensions run through the conference, despite Nehru and Suharto stressing non-alignment (’positive neutralism’)
^ Lebanese foreign minster, for example, critical of this view
Bandung resolutions
- economic cooperation
- cultural cooperation
- human rights and self determination
- promotion of world peace and cooperation on a global stage
- respect of territorial integrity of all nations
- opposition to collective defence agreements (against NATO, SEATO, CENTO)
Context of the Suez Crisis
1869, Suez Canal Company (opening canal draws Egypt further into a web of debt and obligation); 1876 Caisse de la Dette (Egypt defaults on its sovereign debt, taken over by Caisse de la Dette, run by British and French bankers); 1882 occupation (perhaps to protect interests of bond holders)—Cromer to Lampson
Early 1920s, mid 1930s - singing treaties giving ‘independence’ to Egypt - retains control over foreign policy, its debt, the Suez canal and Sudan
by 1940s, widespread hatred of British rule and the Egyptian monarchy
defeat in 1948 Arab Israeli war sends shockwaves through Egyptian society
1952 Free Officers (group of young graduates, part of military elite, clear view of themselves as natural born leaders, begin to plot a military revolution), RCC, Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasir (Nasser); Muhammad Neguib
^ topple the monarchy in 1952 - Nasser promises a dual revolution, stamping out ‘feudalism’ and forces of monopoly (large Egyptian and foreign companies that dominate the Egyptian economy)
1954 - single party state established (Muslim Brotherhood members and communists put in prison, begins a program of land redistribution)
First act of Egyptian defiance
Britain and US try to commit Egypt to a collective defence pact aligned with the west
1955 Baghdad Pact (established under egis of Britain - mobilisation across the Arab world), Egypt then signs a defence pact of its own
How did the Suez Crisis unfold?
1956 nationalisation (Mossadegh, PM of Iran in 1951 had nationalised Iranian oil -sets precedent of sovereignty over economic resources), Aswan High Dam (created a need for economic resources) ARAMCO 50:50
^ US had made it clear that they would not fund a dam, as Nasser had turned to the USSR for support too
^ within the week of this announcement, Nasser nationalised the canal
October Sèvres, Ben Gurion, Pineau and Mollet, Eden (fears of imperial dissolution in the middle east and a fear that nationalisation would cut off energy supplies to Britain); November operations
by October of 1956, war plans drawn up by the French - call on Israel to launch a limited offensive into Egyptian territory (Britain and France to come in as ‘peacekeepers’ and occupy the canal) - plan fell apart
Why didn’t the US support its allies’ actions in Egypt?
Eisenhower and Dulles: cold war containment (could not condemn the USSR’s intervention in Hungary while supporting British and French activities in Egypt)
How did third world countries interact with the Cold War?
3rd world leaders in Egypt, India, Indonesia and elsewhere wanted to escape the binary trap of the superpower world (positive neutralism, nonalignment - did not want to be caught between US and Ussr)
^ also wanted to exploit cold war tensions - e.g. Nasser and Nehru receive food aid and technological assistance from the US, while also receiving technical and military assistance from the USSR
Becomes increasingly difficult to stick to the path of non-alignment - not just US, USSR, but also Castro’s Cuba, Mao’s China, seeing the third world as a stage for competition
Examples of the third world becoming a theatre of Cold War competition
Iran 1953 - example of the third world becoming a theatre of CW competition
^ reforming nationalist socialist PM Mossadegh nationalising British controlled oil company, facing British economic boycott - led to a 1953 coup fostered by the CIA and British intelligence, leading to his trial and imprisonment
Operation blue bat in Lebanon, 1958 - only state to invoke the Eisenhower doctrine (idea that the US would step in to help states against communist subversion with economic and military assistance)
^ policy failed - soldiers did not quite know what they were doing (symptomatic of how Washington projected its power in these decades)
Congo, 1960-5 - former Belgian colony, attempted to stop the annexation of Katanga - calls first on US for military assistance, turned down, then looks to Moscow. Toppled in a coup and then assassinated, probably with support from western intelligence
Examples of Cold War interventions
Cold war interventions: Mossadegh 1953; ‘Eisenhower doctrine’ 1957/8 (Camille Chamoun in Lebanon); Congo 1960; Guyana 1964; Dominican Republic, 1965; Vietnam; Indonesia; Chamberlin, Killing Fields (argument against Gaddis’ notion of the CW as a ‘long peace’); Grandin, Last Colonial Massacre (as above)
How did the situation develop into a ‘cultural cold war’?
50s and 60s - literature and culture politicised locally in the Arab world - social realism in literature and cinema, clash between idea that literature should reflect the political priorities of the time and the humanist space, who argued for art for art’s sake
CIA stoke this local conflict - Congress for Cultural Freedom had been funding journals in places like Lagos, Beirut, Cairo - this CCF was funded by the CIA
What was the Eisenhower doctrine?
Eisenhower doctrine - focused on the containment of communism - idea of working in regional spheres to contain communism and its local partners. Involved military assistance, but also a faith in economic planning (Max Millikan, Dan Lermer (writes book called ‘The Passing of Traditional Society), Walt Rostow - development, food aid, economic assistance etc.. can be a useful instrument in the hands of Washington as an instrument to combat world communism
^ modernisation theory
JFK pursues this in places like Latin America - ‘Alliance for Progress’, Peace Corps, USAID, food aid to India, Egypt and other developing states
Johnson - sense of crisis in this policy. Fear that economic aid and assistance weren’t delivering the results needed - shift towards military assistance (e.g. Vietnam, Dominican Republic)
Khruschev’s approach to the third world
1956 PCSU speech: ‘peaceful coexistence’ (means that third world countries can be in a progressive partnership with the USSR without being strictly communist)
^ 20th Communist party conference - argues that the USSR can turn newly independent states in the third world into reliable partners (decolonisation as an opportunity)
Summarise the non-aligned movement
- The ‘Afro-Asiatic’ bloc at the UN - argued for neutralism, development, statehood and self-determination (with neutrality in cold war affairs and independence going hand in hand)
- Non-Alignment (Belgrade Conference, 1961: Nehru, Nkrumah, Nasser, Sukarno, Tito)
- Cairo Conference 1964
- OSPAAL - Organisation for Solidarity between the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America - yet another projection of third world solidarity (global vision of independence and popular struggle)
- NIEO - new international economic order: Michael Manley (PM of Jamaica), Julius Nyerere (President of Tanzania) - programme of ‘national and collective self reliance in a framework of regional and global Third World cooperation’
- ^ very clear continuity of Bandung’s concern with development and cooperation
Emergence of localised socialism
- ‘Arab socialism’, Nasser, Baath; ‘African socialism’, Nyerere, uhuru (freedom), ujaaama (community)
- ^ emergence of localised socialism - e.g. Nasser distinguishing his Arab socialism from traditional sense of class struggle (argued that no one class should be in charge - contrast to Lenin’s dictatorship of the proletariat)
Examples of modernisation projects in third world countries
Aswan High Dam, High Volta dam - ambitions of newly independent postcolonial states to build up prosperous economies and escaping poverty and inequality (drew on both US and Soviet economic and technical assistance)
^ in Egypt, idea of reclaiming the desert to achieve food security and autonomy, and to accelerate the drive to modernity
Explain what Malcolm Kerr means by the ‘Arab cold war’
Nasser’s Egypt vs. Faysal’s Saudi Arabia (increasingly using Islam as a tool of foreign policy) vs. Baathist Syria - all of these states exploiting superpower tensions
Evidence of a bipolar world order
established a bipolar world order - Truman Doctrine (1947) – Pledged U.S. support to nations resisting Communism, particularly Greece and Turkey, Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) – Committed U.S. aid to Middle Eastern countries resisting Communism.
CW proxy wars
proxy wars - Korean War (1950-1953) – U.S. intervention to prevent Communist expansion in Asia, Vietnam War (1955-1975): Massive U.S. involvement to counter Communist North Vietnam, ultimately ending in U.S. withdrawal (1973) and North Vietnamese victory.
CW interventions
interventions - Iran (1953) – Operation Ajax: U.S. and UK orchestrated a coup against Prime Minister Mossadegh, Guatemala (1954): CIA-backed coup removed President Jacobo Árbenz, Cuba (1961) – Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed CIA-led attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro.
Examples of decolonisation
- Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh declared independence, 1945) – French resisted until Dien Bien Phu (1954).
- India and Pakistan (1947) – Partition led to 1-2 million deaths in ethnic violence.
- Indonesia (1945-1949) – Dutch war of reoccupation failed, leading to independence.
Between 1957-1965, over 25 new African states emerged.
connections to the cold war? - Angola and Mozambique (1975): The USSR supported leftist movements against colonial rule.
Limitations of independence
Economic Dependence:
- Many new states remained economically tied to their former colonizers.
- Foreign corporations controlled raw materials (e.g., oil, minerals).
Political Instability:
- Many leaders turned to authoritarian rule (e.g., Idi Amin in Uganda, Mobutu in Zaire).
- Civil wars erupted in Nigeria, Sudan, and Angola.
By 1980s, many newly independent states were burdened by crippling debts - IMF-imposed Structural Adjustment Programs - (e.g., Tanzania owed 60% of GDP in loans).
US still acted in an imperial fashion? - e.g. Congo’s first elected leader, Patrice Lumumba was overthrown in a CIA-sponsored coup
Evidence of the restructuring of global economics in the post-war era
Restructuring of global economics - The postwar era saw a push to transform Third World nations into U.S.-aligned economies:
- Japan’s reconstruction (1945-1952) became a model for non-European nations.
- Foreign aid aimed at market liberalization and privatization.
- “Development education” promoted U.S.-style economic and political systems.
- Social Science Research Council (1957): Advocated for a US-modelled development plan for Third World elites.
- Bretton Woods - establishment of a series of global economic institutions
Role of anti-communism in US foreign policy
- World War I (1914-1918) and its aftermath reinforced a belief that America must shape global peace.
- Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points (1918) promoted national self-determination, but only where it aligned with U.S. interests.
- The Red Scare (1919-1920) intensified fears of Communism influencing America and the world.
- By the 1920s and 1930s, the U.S. shifted focus to economic influence rather than direct military interventions.
- The Great Depression (1929-1939) led to ideological battles over collectivism vs. capitalism.
- World War II (1939-1945) solidified U.S. interventionism; victory reinforced the idea that the world desired “Americanism.”
Cold war and third world interventions by the US
- Truman Doctrine (1947) – Pledged U.S. support to nations resisting Communism, particularly Greece and Turkey.
- Marshall Plan (1948-1952) – Provided $13 billion in aid to rebuild Western Europe.
- Korean War (1950-1953) – U.S. intervention to prevent Communist expansion in Asia.
- Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) – Committed U.S. aid to Middle Eastern countries resisting Communism.
- Covert interventions (1950s-1960s):
- Iran (1953) – Operation Ajax: U.S. and UK orchestrated a coup against Prime Minister Mossadegh.
- Guatemala (1954): CIA-backed coup removed President Jacobo Árbenz.
- Cuba (1961) – Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed CIA-led attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro.
- Vietnam War (1955-1975): Massive U.S. involvement to counter Communist North Vietnam, ultimately ending in U.S. withdrawal (1973) and North Vietnamese victory.
US aid and economic policies
- Marshall Plan (1948) – Funded Europe’s recovery and countered Soviet influence.
- Alliance for Progress (1961) – U.S. economic aid to Latin America to prevent Communist influence.
- Third World aid (1956-1960): 90% of aid came from capitalist countries, 60-70% from the U.S..
Soviet expansion and postwar settlements
- Soviet Annexations (1939-1940): The USSR took Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia), Eastern Poland, and parts of Romania.
Occupation of Eastern Poland (1939): The USSR took half of Poland, leading to the Katyn Massacre (1940), where 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals were executed. - Great Patriotic War (1941-1945): The Soviet Union lost 27 million people but emerged as a superpower after defeating Nazi Germany.
- Eastern Bloc Formation (1945-1948): The USSR installed Communist governments in Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.
Soviet interventions in the early cold war
- Iran Crisis (1946): The USSR supported separatists in Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan but withdrew under U.S. and British pressure.
- Berlin Blockade (1948-1949): The USSR cut off access to West Berlin, prompting the U.S. airlift to supply the city.
- Korean War (1950-1953): Stalin backed North Korea’s invasion of South Korea, leading to a war involving China and the U.S..
Soviet interventions under Khrushchev
- Destalinization (1956): Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s purges and allowed limited reforms in Eastern Europe.
- Hungarian Uprising (1956): The USSR invaded Hungary (after its leader attempted to introduce democratic reforms), killing 2,500 people to crush a democratic uprising.
- supported Nasser during the Suez Crisis, providing weapons and aid
- Iraq (1958): backed an anti-western coup
- Cuban Revolution (1959): The USSR supported Fidel Castro’s regime, leading to nuclear tensions with the U.S..
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The USSR placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, almost causing global nuclear war before a compromise was reached.
Soviet interventions under Brezhnev
- Prague Spring (1968): The USSR invaded Czechoslovakia, suppressing liberal reforms.
- Brezhnev Doctrine (1968): Declared that the USSR would intervene in any socialist country that threatened to turn away from Communism.
- Vietnam War (1965-1975): The USSR supplied weapons and advisors to North Vietnam, helping them defeat the U.S.-backed South Vietnam.
- Angola and Mozambique (1975): The USSR supported leftist movements against colonial rule.
- Afghan Invasion (1979-1989): The USSR invaded Afghanistan to prop up a Communist regime, leading to 15,000 Soviet deaths and major economic strain.
Expansion of colonial rule in the early 20thc
- Expansion of Colonial Rule: By the early 20th century, over 450 million people in Africa and Asia were under direct colonial rule.
- Major colonial powers: Britain, France, Russia, Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the U.S.
- Japan also joined the group of imperialist nations.
- Economic and Political Motives:
- Colonization was driven by industrial needs, such as raw materials, new markets, and cheap labor.
- Technology, military advancements, and transport systems (e.g., steamships, railways) facilitated imperial expansion.
- Colonizers imposed racial superiority and destroyed indigenous social structures.
Effects of colonialism
- Violence and Death Toll:
- Colonial wars resulted in an estimated 5.5 million deaths (direct and indirect casualties).
- Mass famines in Asia and Africa were worsened by colonial policies, as traditional social structures were weakened.
- Divide and Rule Strategies:
- Many colonies were artificially drawn, disregarding ethnic or cultural unity.
- Forced labor, heavy taxation, and land dispossession were common.
Emergennce of anti-colonial sentiment (1920s-30s)
- Post-World War I Disillusionment:
- 1.4 million Indian soldiers fought in WWI, expecting recognition, but were denied self-rule.
- Woodrow Wilson’s rhetoric of “self-determination” was not applied to colonies.
- Rise of Revolutionary Thought:
- Indigenous elites educated in Western universities began to critique colonial rule.
- The Bolshevik Revolution (1917) inspired many anticolonial activists to explore Communism as an alternative to capitalism.
Early decolonisation movements
- Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh declared independence, 1945) – French resisted until Dien Bien Phu (1954).
- India and Pakistan (1947) – Partition led to 1-2 million deaths in ethnic violence.
- Indonesia (1945-1949) – Dutch war of reoccupation failed, leading to independence.
Soviet support for revolutions
- Cuba (1959, Fidel Castro) – U.S.-Soviet rivalry intensified after Bay of Pigs (1961) and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).
- Algeria (1954-1962) – The USSR provided weapons to the FLN, leading to French withdrawal.
Post WW2 US dominance
- U.S. Economic Power After WWII:
- By 1950, the U.S. GDP was larger than all of Europe combined and possibly equal to Europe plus the Soviet Union.
- The U.S. GDP per capita was twice that of Western Europe, and productivity was almost three times the European average.
- The U.S. was the world’s leading exporter and foreign investor by 1950.
- Cold War and U.S. Foreign Policy:
- The U.S. viewed itself as the leader of the global capitalist system, with a mission to counter Communism.
- The U.S. replaced European colonial powers in struggles against anticolonial radicalism but did so primarily for ideological and strategic reasons rather than to assist Europe.
- There was no “Marshall Plan” for newly independent Third World nations, leading to vast inequalities in development.
- The “Intervention for Reform” Doctrine:
- U.S. policymakers, particularly under NSC 68 (1950), saw their mission as imposing order on unstable regions.
- While the U.S. sought to promote democracy and economic growth, it often prioritized anti-Communism over true reform.
Example of US involvement in Latin America
- Guatemala (1954 – Operation PBSUCCESS):
- President Jacobo Árbenz enacted land reforms, threatening United Fruit Company (U.S. corporate interests).
- The CIA led a coup, installing a military dictatorship.
- Consequence: Decades of civil war (200,000 deaths), U.S. support for military juntas.
Attitudes towards self-determination at the Paris Peace Conference
Colonial leaders, including Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), Sa’d Zaghlul (Egypt), and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (India), appealed for self-rule.
^ demands ignored - reinforced resentment towards Western powers
Early anticolonial movements (1919-39)
- Pan-African Congress (1919, Paris) gathered African and Caribbean leaders to demand rights and self-rule.
- Indian Independence Movement gained momentum under Mahatma Gandhi’s non-cooperation campaign (1930 Salt March).
- Vietnamese Communism: Ho Chi Minh formed the Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League (1925).
- Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian solidarity emerged, challenging Western domination.
The rise of revolutionary nationalism (1957-62)
African Independence Movements
- Ghana (1957) became the first Sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence.
- 1960 – “The Year of Africa”:
- 17 African nations gained independence.
- The UN recognized many newly independent states.
The Congo Crisis (1960-1965)
- Patrice Lumumba became Congo’s first Prime Minister (1960).
- CIA-backed coup ousted Lumumba (1961), installing Mobutu Sese Seko (pro-U.S. dictator, ruled until 1997).
- Result: Congo suffered decades of dictatorship and economic decline.
Cuban Revolution (1959)
- Fidel Castro overthrew the U.S.-backed Batista regime.
- 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion (U.S.-led) failed, pushing Cuba towards Soviet alignment.
- 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis: Nearly led to nuclear war before a U.S.-Soviet compromise.
What do Zheng, Szonyi and Liu argue about the Cold War in Asia?
Challenges the Eurocentric view, arguing that Asia was integral to CW geopolitics
Key interpretations of Cold War history
- Orthodox View (1940s-50s): Blamed the USSR for aggression and expansionism.
- Revisionist View (1960s-70s): Argued that U.S. global policies were equally responsible for escalating tensions.
- Post-Revisionist View (1980s-90s): Balanced both perspectives, acknowledging Soviet expansionism and U.S. interventionism.
- New Cold War History (2000s+): Recognizes that the Cold War was not just a bipolar struggle but a global phenomenon shaped by local actors.
The role of ideology and propaganda in the CW in Asia
- The U.S. used “soft power” strategies:
- Voice of America (VOA) and Radio Free Asia broadcasted anti-Communist messages.
- Hollywood and popular culture promoted capitalist and democratic values.
- China and the USSR used mass propaganda:
- Posters, films, and state-controlled media glorified Communism and denounced Western imperialism.
- China’s Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) was partly an ideological battle against Soviet revisionism.
US containment strategy in Asia
- Truman Doctrine (1947): Pledged to support nations resisting Communism.
- Marshall Plan (1948): Focused on Europe, but Asia received minimal economic aid.
- SEATO (1954): Formed an anti-Communist alliance in Southeast Asia.
- Massive Military Aid:
- South Korea ($10 billion by 1960s).
- South Vietnam ($15 billion by 1973).
- Taiwan ($5 billion by 1965).
The Soviet shift to ‘peaceful coexistence’
- Twentieth Congress of the CPSU (Feb 1956)
- Khrushchev declared that international relations had become truly global, not just centered on the West.
- Argued that thermonuclear war was too dangerous, making direct conflict with capitalism undesirable.
- Proposed a strategy of economic competition rather than military confrontation.
- Abandoned Leninist idea that war between capitalism and socialism was inevitable.
Key actions - disbanded Cominform (April 1956)
Impact of de-Stalinization on Soviet foreign policy
- Stalin had focused on European conflicts (e.g., USSR vs. Western bloc), largely ignoring colonial/postcolonial struggles.
- USSR’s previous approach:
- Limited support for revolutionary movements outside of Korea & China.
- Negotiated with Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists rather than fully supporting the CCP in the 1940s.
Sino-Soviet divergence in the developing world
(1958-60)
- Soviet Strategy in Newly Independent States
- USSR aimed to:
- Politically detach postcolonial states from former colonial powers.
- Provide economic aid (e.g., infrastructure, industrialization).
- Promote socialism via state-led development rather than armed struggle.
- USSR aimed to:
- Chinese Concerns About Soviet Priorities
- China saw rapid decolonization as a revolutionary moment but felt the USSR was too passive.
- USSR’s focus on European détente and diplomacy over anti-imperialism worried Beijing.
- 1959: Soviet neutrality in the Sino-Indian border conflict → confirmed China’s doubts about Moscow’s commitment to anti-imperialism.
- Growing Chinese Frustration with the USSR
- Believed the USSR had become too focused on relations with the West.
- Felt Moscow was compromising revolutionary goals in exchange for stability and diplomatic prestige.
The Soviet approach to the third world
- Soviet Aid Expansion (1958–1961)
- Economic aid to developing nations surged:
- Doubled from 1957 to 1958.
- By 1961, reached 2.5 billion rubles (~$2.64 billion).
- Expanded from 5 recipients (1956) to 20 by 1961.
- Key aid recipients:
- India, Afghanistan, UAR (Egypt), Iraq, Ghana, Guinea, Cuba, Indonesia, Pakistan.
- Economic aid to developing nations surged:
- Strategic Goals of Soviet Aid
- Strengthen economic ties & reduce reliance on Western assistance.
- Promote state-led industrialization (e.g., Bhilai Steel Plant in India, Aswan High Dam in Egypt).
- Avoid direct military involvement – economic & technological assistance preferred.
- Challenges in Soviet Engagement
- Lack of expertise in Africa & Asia:
- Few Soviet experts understood local cultures & economies.
- Shortage of language skills & specialists in developing regions.
- Limited ability to compete with Western influence due to historical Western dominance.
- Lack of expertise in Africa & Asia:
China’s approach to the third world
- Shift in Chinese Policy (1958–1960)
- Began developing its own approach to anti-imperialism.
- Increased aid to revolutionary movements in Africa & Asia.
- 1958 reports emphasized:
- Studying African class structures.
- Assessing “revolutionary maturity” of national liberation movements.
- Favoring armed struggle over peaceful decolonization.
- Tensions in the Afro-Asian Solidarity Movement (AAPSO - Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organisation)
- 1958 Cairo Conference: China vs. India & Egypt
- India & Egypt promoted “nonviolence” and “neutrality”.
- China pushed for militant anti-imperialism.
- USSR remained cautious, trying to balance both sides.
- 1958 Cairo Conference: China vs. India & Egypt
- The 1959 Turning Point: Sino-Indian Border Conflict
- Tensions erupted over Tibet & border disputes.
- Soviet Union refused to take China’s side, maintained neutrality.
- China saw this as Soviet betrayal – confirmed belief that Moscow prioritized diplomacy over revolution.
1960: the beginning of open Sino-Soviet competition
- Second AAPSO Conference (Conakry, Guinea, April 1960)
- China aimed to counter the Indo-Egyptian influence over the movement.
- USSR focused on promoting “Peaceful Coexistence” & disarmament.
- China sought to shift the movement toward armed struggle & militant anti-imperialism.
- First clear signs of a Chinese challenge to Soviet leadership in the Third World.
- Chinese Perspective on Soviet Policy
- Saw USSR as too hesitant and conciliatory.
- Believed Soviet support for détente with the West weakened global revolutionary movements.
- Soviet Concerns About China
- Feared China’s aggressive stance could destabilize global Communist strategy.
- Suspected China of undermining Soviet leadership in the Third World.
Why were the Polish and Hungarian crises important?
- The Polish and Hungarian uprisings of 1956 were defining moments in Cold War history, exposing deep fractures within the Soviet bloc and highlighting Beijing’s growing ideological and political divergence from Moscow.
- Historians like Chen Jian argue that Mao Zedong used these crises to reposition China as a key player in international communism, challenging Soviet dominance.
- The events revealed that Soviet control over Eastern Europe was weaker than expected, leading to increased repression and setting the stage for future conflicts within the Communist movement.
Background and causes of the Polish crisis
- Poland had been under strict Soviet influence since WWII, but after Stalin’s death (1953), Polish workers and intellectuals began demanding greater national independence.
- In June 1956, a workers’ strike in Poznań escalated into protests demanding better living conditions, reforms, and reduced Soviet control.
- The crisis peaked in October 1956 when the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP) elected Władysław Gomułka as leader, signaling a break from Soviet hardliners.
- Gomułka’s reforms included:
- Expelling Stalinist officials.
- Demanding Soviet troops withdraw.
- Rejecting complete Soviet domination while remaining in the Communist bloc.
- Fearing a Polish defection to the West, Khrushchev rushed to Warsaw on October 19, 1956, along with top Soviet officials Molotov, Mikoyan, and Kaganovich, considering military intervention.
China’s response to the Polish crisis
- While Mao did not support mass revolts, he opposed Soviet military intervention, calling it an act of “big-power chauvinism.”
- Mao believed that Moscow’s mistakes—forcing Eastern European states into subservience—had caused these uprisings. He compared Poland’s situation to China’s past dependence on Moscow.
The CCP decided to formally oppose Soviet intervention, making it clear that Beijing would protest any Soviet military action in Poland.
Mao summoned Soviet ambassador Pavel Yudin, warning Moscow that if Soviet troops entered Poland, China would publicly condemn the action.
Outcome of the Polish crisis
- Khrushchev backed down and agreed to negotiations with Gomułka instead of military action.
- Poland remained in the socialist bloc, but Moscow allowed it more autonomy.
- The resolution of the crisis strengthened China’s political standing, showing that Beijing had successfully pressured Moscow into restraint.
Background and causes of the Hungarian crisis
- Inspired by Poland’s success, Hungarian students and workers began demanding democratic reforms on October 23, 1956.
- Imre Nagy, a reformist Communist leader, became Hungary’s Prime Minister, promising:
- Multi-party democracy.
- Withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
- Neutrality in the Cold War.
- Soviet troops initially entered Budapest on October 24 but withdrew on October 29, as Khrushchev debated allowing Hungarian reforms.
China’s changing position on Hungary
Initially, Beijing saw Hungary as another case of Soviet overreach, similar to Poland.
- By October 29, reports from Chinese journalists in Budapest suggested that the uprising was being hijacked by anti-Communist forces, potentially supported by Western intelligence.
- Mao began viewing the Hungarian crisis as a Western-backed “counterrevolution”, different from Poland’s internal reform movement
On October 30, Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping met with Khrushchev in Moscow, urging him not to withdraw Soviet troops. - argued that withdrawing from Hungary would allow ‘reactionary elements’ to take over, setting a dangerous precedent.
- Khrushchev, who had considered pulling out, reversed his decision on November 1, 1956, and ordered a full-scale Soviet invasion.
- On November 4, Soviet forces crushed the Hungarian uprising, executing Imre Nagy and restoring pro-Soviet control.
Historical perspectives on the Polish and Hungarian crises
- Chen Jian: The Polish and Hungarian crises were pivotal moments in Beijing’s rise as an independent Communist power, reducing Soviet authority.
- Western scholars: The crises undermined the credibility of Communism worldwide, accelerating the eventual collapse of the Soviet bloc.
- Chinese sources: Emphasize that Mao saw the Hungarian uprising as a Western plot, reinforcing his belief in the necessity of continuous revolution.
US perceptions of Bandung
- Washington feared it would become a platform for anti-Western and anti-white rhetoric.
- U.S. intelligence (CIA) worried China would dominate the gathering, spreading Communist ideology under the banner of anti-colonialism.
- Secretary of State John Foster Dulles saw Bandung as an attempt to segregate Asia from the West, framing it as a dangerous racial divide.
- Western policymakers worried that Bandung symbolized Asian rejection of white leadership.
- Newsweek (Jan 1955): Published an article titled “Asia: Can the West Hold Back the Tide?”—suggesting a racial war was looming.
- Some U.S. officials believed Communist China aimed to lead an anti-white global alliance.
Contradictions in US messaging
- The U.S. portrayed itself as a champion of democracy and freedom but struggled with racism at home (e.g., segregation, civil rights struggles).
- This hypocrisy made it difficult to win the trust of Asian and African nations.
- The administration needed to convince Asia it was different from European colonial powers.
- However, U.S. ties with Britain and France (colonial rulers) weakened its credibility.
- The U.S. still supported white-dominated governments in South Africa and other regions, making its anti-colonial rhetoric seem hollow.
- The administration needed to convince Asia it was different from European colonial powers.
- However, U.S. ties with Britain and France (colonial rulers) weakened its credibility.
- The U.S. still supported white-dominated governments in South Africa and other regions, making its anti-colonial rhetoric seem hollow.
US strategy to counter Bandung’s influence
- Forming SEATO (1954): A Western Response to Asian Unity
- The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was created to contain Communism but was seen as a “white man’s club”.
- Western allies feared an all-Asian coalition, so Thailand and the Philippines were included to give it an Asian appearance.
- Criticism: Pakistan joined for its own security against India, not for regional unity.
Which historians argue that the media played a key role in the CW?
Tony Shaw & Nicholas Cull: The media was an ideological battlefield, influencing perceptions in both East and West.
Historians’ perspectives on Afro-Asian internationalisms
- Christopher J. Lee (2010) describes Bandung as “both a moment and an era”, balancing revolutionary aspirations with realpolitik.
- Gary Wilder (2015) calls the post-1945 period a “world-historical opening”, where decolonization was imagined through multiple possibilities.
- Itty Abraham (2008) warns against conflating Bandung with the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), emphasizing their distinct trajectories.
Pre-Bandung networks and key events
Asian Relations Conference (Delhi, 1947) - brought together Asian leaders to discuss decolonisation
Asian Socialist Conference (Rangoon, 1953) - attempted to unite socialist movements in Asia but struggled with CW divisions (but unlike Bandung, this conference included explicit critiques of Western and Soviet imperialism)
Asia-Pacific Peace Conference (Beijing, 1952) - China’s attempt to build an alternative Afro-Asian bloc under its influence
Historians’ Debate
- Kyaw Zaw Win (1955) → Argues that the 1953 Asian Socialist Conference was a “precursor” to Bandung, but its socialist agenda limited participation.
- Lorenz Lüthi (2016) → Suggests that non-alignment and Afro-Asianism were often in conflict, making unity difficult.
US response to Bandung
- The U.S. saw Bandung as a racial and ideological threat, fearing it would create a third bloc opposed to the West.
- CIA involvement → Secretly briefed Philippine diplomat Carlos Romulo to push a pro-Western narrative.
Key ‘other Bandungs’
- Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organization (AAPSO) (Cairo, 1957)
- The first major Afro-Asian movement formed after Bandung.
- Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser used it to position Egypt as an Afro-Asian leader.
- China and the USSR competed for influence, exposing ideological fractures.
- New Delhi Conference (1955) – “The People’s Bandung”
- Held just before Bandung, but more radical and grassroots-focused.
- Included trade unions, feminists, and leftist intellectuals, unlike Bandung’s official government delegations.
- Cultural Congress of Havana (1968)
- Brought together Afro-Asian-Latin American intellectuals in Cuba, expanding Bandung’s global reach.
- Pakistan’s left-wing poets & writers attended, despite their government’s U.S. alignment.
Examples of divergent CW alliances within the Commonwealth
- Some remained strongly pro-Western (e.g., UK, Australia, Canada).
- Others adopted neutral or non-aligned positions (e.g., India, Ghana).
- A few leaned toward socialist/communist policies despite being in the Commonwealth (e.g., some African nations).
- India (1947): Became a leader in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), refusing to join the U.S. or USSR.
- Ghana (1957): Under Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana took a more socialist approach, seeking economic cooperation with the USSR.
- Malaya (1957): Stayed pro-Western, aligning with Britain and the U.S. against communist insurgencies.
Military conflicts and commonwealth involvement
- Korean War (1950–1953):
- UK, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand fought alongside the U.S. under the UN to resist North Korean (and later Chinese) communist forces.
- Malayan Emergency (1948–1960):
- British and Commonwealth troops fought against communist guerrillas in Malaya (modern-day Malaysia).
- This was one of the first anti-communist counterinsurgencies of the Cold War.
- Suez Crisis (1956):
- Britain, along with France and Israel, invaded Egypt after Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal.
- This led to a diplomatic crisis, with the U.S. and USSR both condemning Britain.
- Rhodesian Bush War (1964–1979):
- Britain and the Commonwealth faced tensions over white-minority rule in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
- The UK opposed the white-led government, while South Africa supported it—causing division within the Commonwealth.
What was the major divide within the Commonwealth?
A major divide within the Commonwealth was between pro-Western nations and non-aligned members.
- The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was led by India, Indonesia, Egypt, and Yugoslavia.
- Several Commonwealth nations (India, Ghana, Malaysia) were founding members of NAM.
- The NAM aimed to:
- Avoid Cold War entanglements
- Promote economic self-reliance
- Mediate between the U.S. and USSR
This non-aligned stance sometimes frustrated Britain and the U.S., but it allowed smaller nations to assert independence in global affairs.
