THEME 4: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS - HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS THE SOVIET GOVERNMENT’S ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION? Flashcards
Summarise why historians see education as ‘one of the great successes of Soviet social policy’.
Historians have highlighted the enormous expansion of educational provision at levels and the reduction in illiteracy. Much of this success was achieved in spite of a lack of resources. The Soviet government attached a great deal of significance to education as a transformative force in society and as a method of instilling socialist values and attitudes into the general population from an early age. With the entire educational system in the hands of the state, the Party could exercise control over the curriculum for its own advantage.
What was education like in Tsarist Russia?
It had been largely limited to the rich, especially at secondary and university level. Technical schools aimed at the children of the middle class were small in number and confined to the larger cities. At primary level, many schools were provided by the Russian Orthodox Church and there were several thousand peasant-run schools, but for many children school was not considered an important part of their life. The Tsarist government never made school attendance compulsory and many of those who did attend school dropped out before completing four years. In rural areas, 88% of children failed to complete primary education.
Who was Anatoly Lunachevsky and what impact did he have?
In 1917, control of education was given to the Commissariat of Education (Narkompros), headed by Anatoly Lunachevsky, and the Bolsheviks launched an ambitious programme to provide free, universal and compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 17, with a simultaneous expansion in higher education. In 1918, existing church schools were taken over by the government and education at primary and secondary level was based on the comprehensive model: schools took children of all abilities and all received the same education, at least until the last few years of secondary level provision.
What were the limitations of Lunachevsky’s reforms?
The aim of universal compulsory education did not materialise during Lunachevsky’s lifetime due to the lack of resources caused by the civil war of 1918-21. Narkompros could only supple one pencil for every 60 students. Shortages left students with pieces of coal to write with. Teachers were poorly paid and often expected to teach classes of 40 or more as well as devote unpaid time to cleaning the school. Conditions were not conducive to a good educational experience and drop-out rates were very high. In 1926, the average child only attended school for 2.77 years.
What were the achievements of the education system in the 1930s?
The goal of providing universal compulsory education was largely achieved, particularly in urban areas. The number of children in education increased from 14 million (1929) to over 20 million (1931). The standard of teaching in rural areas rose during the 1930s as schools benefited from the large number of teachers deported to isolated areas during the Great Terror. The 1930s saw access to education extended to children of ‘alien social elements’, that is, those whose parents were from the aristocracy, bourgeoisie or ‘enemies of the people’.
What were the limitations to the achievements of the education system in the 1930s?
Most school children failed to continue their education beyond the first two years of secondary education.
What was the system established in 1934?
The basic pattern of Soviet schooling, which was to exist thereafter, was established. This was a system of general academic schools that provided four years of primary-level education, each year with its own class teacher. This was followed by three years of ‘incomplete secondary education’, where students were taught by subject teachers. After this period of study, students could stay on for two or three more years of ‘complete secondary education’ or transfer to a vocational programme. Some students simply left school for work.
What changes were made in the 1980s to educational structure?
The Soviet government turned many general academic schools into specialist schools, for subjects such as mathematics, science or foreign languages and demand for admission to these schools was often very high. These schools were open to boys and girls, although participation by girls tended to decline with age. Children of graduates were most likely to gain places, but bribery was sometimes used by parents to secure places for their children.
What were the key limitations to education in the 1920s?
They key obstacle was a lack of resources and, in the 1920s, this was largely a consequence of the impact of the civil war, but it remained a limiting factor thereafter. Under the NEP, state spending on schools declined and the numbers attending school shrank, only recovering at the end of the 1920s. The lack of resources meant that many schools closed during the winter because there was no heating. It was not only economic resources that were in short supply.
Why were some rural families unable to keep their children in school?
Low wages discouraged many people from entering the teaching profession, as did the low status attached to teachers in the 1920s. Rural schools were especially affected by a lack of teachers, poor teaching and inadequate facilities. In 1940, tuition fees, albeit low, had been introduced for the last years of secondary education. These fees were withdrawn in 1956, after which no fees were required to attend either primary or secondary education. However, parents were expected to pay for textbooks, individual equipment and uniforms. For poor rural families, these costs could force children to leave school before the final years of secondary education.
What impact did WW2 have on education?
A large number of teachers were killed in action, and 82,000 schools were physically destroyed in the fighting. Post-war recovery was difficult and many schools worked a two- or even three-shift day to cope with the lack of classrooms.
What impact did the Fifth Five-Year Plan have on education?
A target was set for implementing a ten-year compulsory education for urban schools by 1955 and rural schools by 1960. This proved to be over-optimistic and, after 1958, schools delivered an eight-year programme of compulsory education (ages 7 to 15), after which students could choose to attend a further two years of academic education, transfer to a vocational college or go directly into the workplace.
What impact did ‘traditional values’ have on education?
Traditional attitudes towards the importance of education were often hard to overcome. Attendance at rural schools was often problematic, especially at harvest time.
What policies did Khrushchev introduce to combat ‘traditional values’ and what impact did it have?
K was concerned about the different levels of education experienced by rural children compared with those who lived in towns and implemented a programme of affirmative action. This involved collective farmers being sent to colleges for specialised education and reserving college places for those who had two years of work experience on collectives. These policies failed to have much impact before they were withdrawn after K’s dismissal in 1964. Even when competing for places at colleges specialising in agricultural sciences, students from a rural background remained disadvantaged. Two-thirds of students came from urban schools and possessed good academic qualifications. Rural customs remained difficult to break: in 1981, a head teacher from a school in Kirghistan complained in Pravda that his students never turned up for the new school term until November.
What impact did cultural influences have?
State education was viewed by many from the ethnic minorities as a vehicle for Russification. All school children had to learn Russian, even if other subjects were taught in the ethnic language of the region. Teachers were usually Russian and were often regarded with suspicion by minority communities. In Muslim areas, female teachers commanded very little respect. Cultural attitudes also limited the number of Muslim women entering the higher levels of secondary education. In the Uzbek Republic in 1955, girls made up only 26% of the school population in the final two years of secondary education.
What evidence is there to suggest other governmental policies had a significant impact on educational policies?
The forced collectivisation of agriculture after 1928 removed many teachers village schools. They were often seen as elements of the ‘old world’ to be swept away in the name of socialist progress. Many were labelled as kulaks and deported to labour camps. This trend was accelerated during the chaos caused by the Cultural Revolution of 1931-32. Education in many rural areas was brought to a standstill as attacks on ‘bourgeois’ elements saw many teachers removed from schools. Students keen to see the back of unpopular teachers informed on them to Party officials. The result was that some schools ended up with no teachers at all.
Had the government created a ‘classless education system’?
Attempts were made but changes were often limited or influenced by a Soviet elite, which preferred a system that separated their children from those of the masses. An academic education (rather than a technical or vocational one) that involved the completion of secondary schooling remained the desired route for those who wished their children to better themselves. This academic route may have been open to all, but the reality was that it remained dominated by the children of a white-collar and managerial elite.
What impact did Khrushchev have on adult education?
K’s background as a former rabfak student made him appreciate the importance of providing opportunities for those who had dropped out of education at an early age. Under his leadership, there was an expansion in opportunities to enable others to return to education as part-time or correspondence students. By 1964, over 2 million were attending such courses.
