theme 4: social developments 1917-85 Flashcards
when were labour exchanges (job centres) set up
1918
Soviet government announces full employment in …
1930
when was minimum wage introduced + pension provision expanded
1956
expansion of the housing programme happened in
1956-65
when did the government reduce the working week
1957
working hours in 1956 vs 1958
1956: 48 hours per week
1958: 41 hours per week
when were regular wages introduced for collective farmers
1966
when was the work passport system extended to the rural population
1974
problems caused by Stalin’s push to industrialise (employment)
created full employment, no incentives for workers since they have a garunteed job
technology was old so everything had to be done by hand, there was a labour shortage
effects of civil war on workers
collapse of industrial production meant there was a drift of workers out of the countryside and into factory work where income was more reliable -> food shortages
people way fighting in civil war lead to shortage of workers -> many factories closed down
how did the government deal with shortage of workers during the civil war
issued a decree that forced people without employment to take any work offered to them
1918 -> war communism -> labour conscription
labour exchanges set up to supervise the hiring of workers
issue with the labour exchanges
many workers did not register for fear of being forced into a job they didn’t like
problems of the end of the civil war on the workforce
millions of discharged soldiers returned to civilian work
most of the women left their jobs for the returning men, leaving many homeless
food shortages in the countryside lead to a wave of workers and peasants coming into the cities
unemployment in 1926 was over a million
why did many women give up their jobs after there civil war
returning men were often better trained
seen as more important for men to provide for their family
discrimination in the workforce, 70% of those who were fired were female
perks of the end of the civil war on the workforce
NEP meant real wages started to rise for skilled workers
what are real wages
income expressed in terms of purchasing power as opposed to actual money received.
“what happens to real wages depends on changes in both money wages and prices”
features of the job market under the NEP
use of arteli in recruitment
growth in wage differentials (highest paid vs lowest paid)
“shock brigades” to work on construction projects
what were arteli
groups of workers, usually from the same trade, who offered their services as a group and were paid as a group. lead by older members who organised jobs and distributed pay based on arbitrary factors such as age and sometimes even beard length.
Government considered them a backward feature of the economy
number of hired workers in 1928 vs 1937
1928: 11.6 million
1937: 27 million
effects of the 5 year plans on the workforce
excessive targets meant factories had to employ extra workers
new factories and building works always opening -> lots of employment opportunities
because of high demand, by 1932 there were labour shortages
effects of full employment on the workers
swamping of old industrial workers by new peasant workers lead to divisions in the workplace
restrictions places on trade unions, no longer allowed to negotiate with managers –> poor working conditions
October 1930, unemployment benefit was cancelled -> trade unions left to provide social insurance such as compensation for injuries
low productivity, 1927 the average soviet worker produced 1/2 of what an average British worker produced
effects of labour shortages
workers who were unhappy with their jobs could easily find a new one, no one stayed in jobs long enough to properly learn the trade
how did the government combat labour shortages
1931: wage difference between skilled and unskilled workers increased
1932: internal passport introduced that was needed to change jobs, started distributing rations at the workplace so those in between jobs didn’t get them
1934: piecework introduced (paid by the amount you produce), however high wages were not a great incentive as there was little to buy in shops
1937: 30% of workers still charged jobs 4 times a year
bolshevik policy on housing in 1917
took big houses from rich people to partition and rent to the families of workers. meant to be assigned by need, rather they were mostly given to those higher up in the party.
not enough housing to meet the needs of all
effects of the 5 year plans on housing
enormous growth of towns put strain on housing. Housing given low priority whilst massive influx of workers meant demand was high
population of Moscow 1929 vs 1936
1929: 2.2 million
1936: 4.1 million
population of Magnitogorsk 1929 vs 1932
1929: 25
1932: 250,000
effects of housing not matching population growth during 5 year plans
workers slept in tents, makeshift huts, or in the factories they worked in
living conditions in 1936
only 6% of people rented units with more than 1 room
24% of workers only rented part of 1 room
5% lived in a kitchen or corridor
25% lived in dormitories
cost of renting
living costs were low, most families spent less than 8% of income on housing. however this did not make up for the fact that most lived without hot water or electricity
effects of WW2 on housing
Stalingrad lost 90% of housing
Leningrad lost 1/3 of housing during the siege of the city (1941-44)
who provided most social benefits for workers
trade unions
since they no longer had any real economic or political power they improved the lives of workers by organising sports facilities, meetings, and film shows
social benefits provided for workers by trade unions
given 2 weeks paid holiday, often taken on cheap subsidised vacations to state resorts
sick pay given
number of doctors 1929 vs 1940 + reason for change
1928: 70,000
1940: 155,000
many doctors had fled Russia soon after the revolution in 1917, weakening the healthcare that the government could provide so they increased the number of training
what was soviet healthcare like
lots of healthcare available, not always high quality
good sanitation, all sanitary inspectors were given the same status as doctors
patients had no choice in healthcare and all medications had to be paid for (at a low subsidised rate)
social services in cities vs rural areas by 1953
cities: soviet worker was likely to be employed, housed, and in receipt of basic social services
rural: services were primitive, if that area even had any
when did krushchev claim that the soviet society would begin to enjoy the benefits of socialism
1961
employment under developed socialism
1977 constitution guaranteed full employment. only temporary unemployment for seasonal workers and fresh graduates
employment does not equal job satisfaction, several pointless jobs invented to allow full employment
real wages rose 50% 1967-77, workers had more spending power
job security under developed socialism
1977 constitution made it difficult to fire someone for anything (laziness, incompetence, or alcoholism)
managers often ignored work discipline, many workers were absent or moonlighting
minimum wage introduced in 1956 to try stop moonlighting and keep everyone above the poverty line
improved material benefits under developed socialism
9th five year plan 1971-75 set a higher growth rate for consumer goods than heavy industry
targets were not met but they’re was still improvement
how did the nomenklatura system bring stability under developed socialism
in order to be promoted, you had to be recommended by a sponsor within the party. Workers had to show loyalty to the party.
party membership grew because of this
communist party membership 1953 vs 1980
1953: 6.9 million
1980: 17 million
how did education under developed socialism
compulsory education age 7-15 meant literacy levels reached over 99% by the 1980s
compulsory school meant it was easy to get propaganda to the children
what were the soviet youth groups
octoberists (5-9)
pioneers (10-14)
Komsomol (15-28)
you had to join a youth group if you wanted to be in favour with the party, also allowed children to escape crowded social living
state welfare spending 1950 vs 1980
increased fivefold
pensions, maternity benefits, and housing all received more attention which helped relieve some poverty
annual amount of housing space provided by the state 1951 vs 1961
1951: 178 million square meters
1961: 394 million square meters
living conditions in the countryside under developed socialism
increased investment in agriculture started by krishchev was continued by Brezhnev
used to fund schools, housing, and healthcare in rural areas
1966, farmers got wages
by the mid 1970’s, wages of rural workers were only 10% less than those of agricultural workers
proof that the soviet government feared social instability
nervous rections to developments in its satellite states
1956: soviet tanks invade Hungary to crush uprising
1968: soviet military used to quell unrest in Czechoslovakia
1980: Poland forced to implement martial law when there are protests over food prices
Zhenotdel
founded in 1917, this women’s department was lead by Alexandra Kollontai
closed in 1930 as the Party claimed women’s issues had been solved (shows male dominated view of the party)
when was the 1st soviet constitution (+ effects on women)
1918
Gave men and women equality under the law
when was the family code
1918
gives women greater right within marriage
civil war effects on women
1918-21.
Millions of women conscripted into the workplace
over 70,000 women fought in the red army (few had high rank)
not enough resources for sufficient childcare / creches
disruption caused by war + famine 1921-22 left many women homeless and lead to a ruse in prostitution
what are ‘postcard’ divorces and when were they made legal
they’re quick & cheap divorces designed to help women escape abusive husbands
made legal in 1926
Instead often used by men to leave wives who had fallen pregnant, 70% of all divorces were initiated by men
campaign for the unveiling of women
1927
lead by radical young Communist women, encouraged muslim women to unveil themselves and be empowered.
lead to ‘honour’ killings -> by the 1930s the government took a softer approach
Stalin’s great retreat
1936
traditional values restored e.g. abortion made illegal again (except where the mother’s life was in danger)
WW2 effects on women
1941-45
women conscripted into factories
when was the tax on single people established
1944
this was one of several measures put in place to further traditionalise family values
abortion legalised (after great retreat)
1955
first women to be a full member of the presidium (politburo)
Ekaterina Furtseva
1957
family code places restrictions on divorce
1968
old russian proverb that shows sexist mentality of the time
“The more you beat your wife the better the soup will taste”
why were the bolsheviks insistent on gender equality
marxism says all should be equal no matter if they are male or female
early decrees (bolsheviks) that helped women
abortion legalised
divorce made simple
laws that forced a woman to obey her husband were abolished
women no longer needed their husband’s permission to take a job or enter higher education
effects of forced collectivisation on women
many men left the countryside to find work in the cities (some sent money to wives, others abandoned)
agricultural work left to women: low status, low pay
made worse by WW2 since most able bodied men were conscripted -> imbalance of the sexes
effects of the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years on women in the countryside
improved
health and maternity care was extended to the countryside
status of agriculture raised
internal passport system extended to countryside in 1974 allowed women to move into the towns in search of better paid work (however this opportunity was normally taken by young men)
impact of industrialisation on women in towns
pressure for labour in industry (five year plans) gave women little choice but to work
work was no longer a symbol of female liberation but of socialist duty
economic struggles of the 30s forced many women into work
women dominated light industry (especially textiles)
number of female industrial workers 1928 vs 1940
1928: 3 million
1940: 13 million
expansion of education for women
1929: government reserves 20% of higher education places for women (rose from 14% to 20%)
1940: 40% of those studying engineering were women
the socially active woman
this was a magazine that targeted the female social elite (1930s onwards). Those married to industrial managers or party officials did not have to work and were instead encouraged to do ‘social work’ (eg hanging up curtains in workers dorms or holding cooking classes). The magazine was a subtle way of enforcing social divisions among women
how many soviet women served in the armed forces WW2
80,000
most in medical but some as pilots, machine gunners, and tank crews
when did women get the vote
1917
women in the party statistics
1932: women only made up 16% of party membership
1939: female delegates only just exceed 10%
first woman in space
Valentina Tereshkova, 1963
she was massively publicised (space race with America) and became a soviet hero
statistic to show women didn’t really have equality in the work place
70% of all dismissals were women
new marriage law
1927
weakened traditional marriage by giving equal status under the law of registered and unregistered marriages
divorce rates after postcard divorces came in
1926: 50% of marriages end in divorce
1926 abortion rates
for every 4 pregnancies, 3 were aborted
due to the poor quality of soviet condoms (‘condoms have more rubber in than the tyres ‘), now-legal abortion became used as contraception
main changes of the great retreat of 1936
divorce made more expensive (4 roubles to 50 roubles)
free marriages lost their legal status
male homosexuality made illegal
abortion outlawed (except where the mothers life was at risk)
pregnant women allowed more maternity leave (16 weeks), given job security, and given lighter work when pregnant (to encourage working women to have kids)
gold wedding rings start to reappear
more money put towards creches
2-year prison sentence for men who did not pay towards the upkeep of their family (often low priority)
childcare expansion 1928 onwards
number of nursery places doubled 1928 to 1930, and continued to grow under the second five year plan
further strengthening of traditional family values after the great retreat
1944
government introduced awards “mother heroines” who had 10 or more children
tax on single people to encourage marriage
divorce made more complicated and couples could be forced to visit a District Court to attempt reconciliation
how did Krushchev’s focus on traditional family values effect working women?
1936: 49% workforce women
Khrushchev stresses that women should be the main source of childcare (double burden)
statistics to show which fields were female dominated by 1985
70% of medical doctors were women
75% of university employees were women
65% of art and culture employees were women
pay in female dominated fields was lower
what were women targeted to do in the virgin lands scheme
milkmaids, gardeners, and start families
men left to use heavy machinery
statistic to show that women were only targeted for low paying jobs in late 50s/early 60s
August 1958
6400 women recruited
only 450 had well paid professional jobs
statistics to show low status of women in agriculture in 70s/80s
1970: 72% of the Soviet union’s lowest-paid farmers were women
1980: only 2% of farm managers were women
