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BO201 Molecular and Cellular Biology > Theme 1:Introduction to Molecular and Cellular Biology > Flashcards

Theme 1:Introduction to Molecular and Cellular Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is biochemistry?

A

Biochemistry is the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physio-chemical processes and substances which occur within living organisms

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2
Q

What is studied in biochemistry?

A

Biochemistry is the study of chemical components of the body

It studied chemical reactions that govern living processes.

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3
Q

what did Feng Zhang do?

A

Zhang pioneered the development of CRISPR-cas9 as a genome editing tool and its use in eukaryotic cells

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4
Q

What is CRISPR?

A

CRISPR is a genetic system that conveys immunity to virus infection in bacteria.
Gives access to every single geno
It is a revolutionary experimental tool

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5
Q

What components are used as a molecular scalpel to cut DNA at a specific site?

A
  • a guide RNA
  • a CRISPR-associated endonuclease(Cas protien)

Cas9 RNA programmable endonuclease

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6
Q

what do Engineered CRISPR systems do?

A

Engineered CRISPR systems cut DNA at a specific site to edit a genome which can convey immunity to a virus infection in bacteria

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7
Q

What ethical problems arise with CRISPR in the clinic?

A

A chinese scientist used CRISPR to make the first genetically edited babies.He claims to have disabled a gene called CCR5, which encodes a protein that allows HIV to enter cells.But He might have inadvertently caused mutations in other parts of the genome, which could have unpredictable health consequences

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8
Q

What is CAR T-cell therapy?

A

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a way to get immune cells called T cells (a type of white blood cell) to fight cancer by changing them in the lab so they can find and destroy cancer cells

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9
Q

What are T-cells?

A

T-cells are specialised white blood cells of the immune system

T cells are engineered to express CARs that recognise cancer cells

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10
Q

How does CAR T-cell therapy work?

A

T-cells are specialised white blood cells of the immune system

They are isolated from a patient and a custom designed gene is introduced into the cells.

Cells containing the gene are grown in culture to prepare an inoculum

CAR T-cells are infused back into the patient

T-cells target cancer cells for killing

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11
Q

Is there any evidence of CAR T-cell therapy working?

A

yes- young girl (emily whitehead) went into remission and was giving low rate to survive. recieved cells age 7 and is now age 16.

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12
Q

How has biochemistry informed
our understanding of the virus and
our approach to managing it?

A

RNA sequence - determines the
functional genes of the virus

  • Origin of the virus
  • Possible drug targets
  • Possible vaccine candidates
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13
Q

What is key to understanding how to target VIRUSES with drugs?

A

knowing how it mutates is key to understanding how to target with drugs?

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14
Q

Typically what do vaccines contain?

A

Typically vaccines contain either killed virus or a

protein fragment of the virus

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15
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Antibodies are specialized, Y-shaped proteins that bind like a lock-and-key to the body’s foreign invaders

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16
Q

How can antibodies work?

A

by binding to a viral protein and

preventing its function

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17
Q

What is leading to a potential arms race with the virus?

A

Some variants are less susceptible to monoclonal

antibodies

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18
Q

How does biochemistry underpin advances in life sciences and biotechnologies.

A

By providing a description of the chemical
components and mechanisms of living
cells,

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19
Q

How is monoclonal antibodies used today?

A

Currently over 75 monoclonal antibodies are approved
for a variety of conditions ranging from cancer to
autoimmune diseases to haemophilia and macular
degeneration

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20
Q

How is biochemistry involved in creating monocolonal antibodies?

A

Creating monoclonal antibodies involves
biochemistry at every level -

  • Generating antibodies by immunisation
  • Characterizing antibody reactivity

• Creating
monoclonal antibodies -
molecular cell biology

• Humanizing antibodies - adapting from
other species

• Purifying antibodies - for use in
patients

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21
Q

What are the main elements that compose the human body (and their %)

A 
Oxygen (65%)
carbon(18%)
hydrogen(10%)
Nitrogen (3%) 
Others (less than 1%)
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22
Q

What are some of the other eements that make up cless than 1% of the human body?

A 
Calcium
phosphorus
sulfur
sodium
chlorine
magnesium
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23
Q

structure

and functional groups in Carbon

A

tetravalent,

tetrahedral
geometry,

the backbone of
biomolecules,

low electronegativity

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24
Q

structure

and functional groups in Oxygen

A
  • divalent,

highly
electronegative

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25
Q

structure

and functional groups in Nitrogen

A

trivalent,

somewhat
electronegative

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26
Q

structure

and functional groups in Hydrogen

A

monovalent,

least
electronegative

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27
Q

structure

and functional groups in phosporus

A

pentavalent,

low
electronegativity –

labile bonds

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28
Q

structure

and functional groups in Sulphur

A

divalent,

moderate
electronegativity; redox

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29
Q

What is Chemical bonding driven by?

A

•Chemical bonding is driven by the

outermost electrons of atoms

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30
Q

What occurs in covalent bonding?

A

In covalent bonding, atoms
share electrons to form
molecular orbitals that comprise
electron pairs.

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31
Q

What are molecular orbitas?

A

In chemistry, a molecular orbital is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule. … When multiple atoms combine chemically into a molecule, the electrons’ locations are determined by the molecule as a whole, so the atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals.

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32
Q

What is – stereochemistry

A

Stereochemistry is the study of the three‐dimensional structure of molecules

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33
Q

what are molecules specific shape based on?

A 
Molecules adopt specific
shape
– stereochemistry
–
based on their bond systems, a
key to molecular structure
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34
Q

when are ions formed?

A

•Ions are formed when
atoms lose or gain electrons
and acquire FIXED
CHARGE

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35
Q

what are ionic bonds?

A

•Ion pair interactions

•Ionized groups such as acids
and bases can form ionic
bonds

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36
Q

are ionic compund soluable or insoluable in water ?

A

•Ionic compounds are
soluble in water due to
solvent polarity

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37
Q

What is poarity?

A

In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end.

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38
Q

What is polar?

A

•Polar is the term for bonds
and compounds with
asymmetric charge distribution

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39
Q

What is electronegatiity?

A

“relative strength of

attraction of atomic nucleus for electrons”

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40
Q

What does asymmetry in e- lead to within a molecule?

A

Asymmetry in e- distrubution leads to

asymmetry in charge within a molecule

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41
Q

what is dipole?

A

A bond or molecule whose ends have opposite charges.

structured
distribution of charge in space.

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42
Q

How can covalent bonds have ‘partial ionic charcter?

A

• Atoms have different tendencies to attract electrons: ‘electronegativity’

• asymmetric sharing of electrons in a
covalent bond

• AND THUS, a partial charge across
the bond, or dipole

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43
Q

Many important bonds in

biochemistry are noncovalent. name some of these bonds.

A 
•Van der Waals interactions
•Hydrogen bonds
•Ion-dipole interactions
•Ionic bonds – paired charge
interactions
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44
Q

What are noncovalent bonds?

A

a relatively weak bond formed between molecules without sharing electrons

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45
Q

what energy do chemical bonds have ?

A

•Energy of formation and

dissociation

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46
Q

name 3 features of van der waals interactions

A

•A proximity effect, the induced
dipole

  • Very short range
  • Molecular packing
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47
Q

what is an example of van der waal interactions?

A

•Design of gecko feet has inspired
dynamically adhesive “van der Waals
materials”

•biomimetic design

•COOPERATIVITY
– many small
bonds add up to great energy

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48
Q

Name four features of hydrogen bonds

A

•Dipole interactions involving a
shared proton = H atom •Polar interaction •H2O can form H-bonds •A great deal of biomolecular
structure is driven by H
-bonding

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49
Q

What are charged- based interactions?

A 
•Electrostatic interactions take
place between charged groups
and
a) other charged groups
b) dipoles

•Can be highly influenced by
solvent and other environmental
effects

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50
Q

What are iconic bonds?

A

ionic bonds involve complete transfer of electrons between
donor and acceptor atoms

e.g. NaCl = Na+ : Cl

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51
Q

How do ions interact?

A 
ions have fixed electrical charges and interact by
complementary attraction (coulombic forces) – like magnets
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52
Q

How do charged groups have a profound influence on the structure of water?

A

charged groups have a profound influence on the structure of

water, by organizing it through charge:dipole interactions.

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53
Q

What are hydrophobic bonds?

A

– van der Waal’s interactions
in polar solvent: increased energy due to
“repulsion” by solvent

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54
Q

Properties of water (6)

A

Solvent

Highly polar molecule

Interacts with charged moities as
well as polar groups in molecules
Self-interacts to form hydrogen
bond network in bulk water

Disruption of the H-bond network
and ordering of water around
hydrophobic surfaces leads to
hydrophobic bonding potential

Strong entropic effect due to
changes in ordering of water
molecules

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55
Q

what is bioenergetics?

A

Bioenergetics is the branch of biochemistry that focuses on how cells transform energy, often by producing, storing or consuming adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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56
Q

what does biological organisation require?

A

Biological organisation requires the flow of energy

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57
Q

in the concept of bioenergetics where is energy stored and how is it moved?

A

Energy is stored in covalent bonds and

moved through high energy compounds

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58
Q

What is the primary source of biological energy?

A

solar radiation

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59
Q

how does solar radiation work?

A

– Photosynthesis
– light mobilizes electrons in chlorophyll
– electrons provide reducing power
= electrochemical energy
– Energy is stored by synthesis of organic
molecules – carbohydrates
– Chloroplasts accomplish this in plants
– Mitochondria coordinate energy metabolism
in animal and plant cells

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60
Q

what is ATP?

A

adenosine
triphosphate

Is a major carrier of chemical
energy.

Free energy of
hydrolysis of terminal
phosphate donates energy to
biochemical reactions.

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61
Q

what is the role of covalent bonds in DNA

A

• establish the structure of the
nucleotide bases

• their linkage to the sugars

• the continuous phosphodiester
backbone

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62
Q

what is the role of hydrogen bonds in DNA

A 
• establish the linkage between
complementary bases that
defines the double strands and
template character of DNA and
RNA
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63
Q

what is the role of van der waals interactions in DNA

A

• lead to base stacking that

stabilizes the double helix

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64
Q

What is the role of charge interactions in DNA

A

between the phosphate groups
of the backbone and water and
with proteins …

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65
Q

what is the primary function of DNA

A

: its primary function is the
storage and replication of biological
information.

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66
Q

what is the role of RNA

A 
acts as a carrier of DNA
-
based information into dynamic
cellular metabolism AS WELL AS
playing catalytic roles
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67
Q

what is protein?

A 
polymers of amino acids
the main products of
genes function as chemical machines
to carry out cellular tasks, chemical
and structural. Information has been
translated into structural form
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68
Q

what are protein rna and dna all?

A

polymers of building blocks(nucleotides and amino acids)

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69
Q

what is dnas code?

A 
linear code
≅ one
-
dimensional
information
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70
Q

what is rna role in codes

A 
functions to carry
linear code and also
folds into 3
-
dimensional molecules
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71
Q

what is proteins shapes

A 
fold into 3
-dimensional
shapes, arranging
chemical groups in
space
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72
Q

what is DNA

A

deoxyribose nucleic acid

the molecule that stores and
transmits biological information in
the form of genes

DNA is a linear polymer of
deoxyribonucleotides, formed by
condensation polymerization

It possesses a double stranded
structure comprised of two
complementary strands basepaired together(double helix structure)

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73
Q

what are the building blocks of dna?

A

sugar phosphste (backbone)

base(hydrogen bonded base pair)

nucleotide

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74
Q

what does the sequence of nucleotides contain?

A

information content of the genes

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75
Q

how is the nucleotide sequence read and decoded?

A 
nucleotide sequence is read in
triplets and decoded by
ribosomes for synthesis of
proteins during the process of
translation
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76
Q

during what process is nucleotide read and decoded?

A

translation

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77
Q

how does dna self regulate?

A

DNA also contains information
for its own regulation
Specialized DNA sequences, bind
to proteins that regulate

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78
Q

what does transcription contain

A

promoters and enhancers

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79
Q

what does replication contain

A

origins of replication ,telomeres

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80
Q

what does segregation contain

A

centromeres

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81
Q

is DNA information content solely directed towards encoding genes?

A

no

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82
Q

what does DNA represent?

A

a storage form of information

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83
Q

what happens to DNA information?

A

It is transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase

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84
Q

Why is dna transcribed into rna?

A

in order to carry out function in the cell, a condensation polymerization

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85
Q

name 5 types of RNA

A
  • mRNA
  • rRNA
  • tRNA
  • miRNA
  • ncRNA
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86
Q

What is mRNA

A

transcripts of genes;

translated into protein

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87
Q

what is rRNA

A

structural and catalytic RNA that makes up ribosomes

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88
Q

what is tRNA

A

transfer RNA that adapts

amino acids for protein translation

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89
Q

what is miRNA

A

microRNA that regulates

gene expression

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90
Q

what is ncRNA

A

long non
-coding RNAs
that regulate genome function

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91
Q

where is the catalytic centre for protein synthesis?

A

it was discovered from solution of the structure of the ribosome that rna comprises the catalytic centre for protein synthesis

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92
Q

what are proteins encoded by?

A

the sequence of nucleotides in their gene

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93
Q

as proteins are the main functional machines of cells , what do the provide?

A 
• catalysis – making and
breaking essential bonds
throughout metabolism
• structure – from cellular
filaments to hair and skin
• motility – molecular motors
and tracks
• signaling – circuitry for
sensing and conveying
• transport – membrane
channels
•& etc
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94
Q

what are the building blocks of protein?

A

amino acids

95
Q

What are amino acids?

A

small organic molecules that consist of an alpha (central) carbon atom linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable component called a side chain

96
Q

where are amino acids polymerized?

A

on ribosome by
condensation reaction
–
dehydration reaction between • carboxylic acid • amino group

97
Q

what forms the peptide bond backbone

A

• amide linkage

• constrained planar bond –
resonant character

• hydrophilic backbone

98
Q

how many amino acids in protein?

A

20 genetically encoded amino acids

99
Q

which amino acids are in acid functional group?

A

glutamic, aspartic

100
Q

which amino acids are in bases functional group?

A

lysine, arginine, histidine

101
Q

which amino acids are in alcohols functional group?

A

serine, threonine

102
Q

which amino acids are in sulfhydryl functional group?

A

– cysteine

103
Q

which amino acids are in amides functional group?

A

glutamine, asparagine

104
Q

which amino acids are in aliphatics functional group?

A

alanine , valine, leucine,

isoleucine, !methionine!

105
Q

which amino acids are in special functional group

A

glycine, proline

106
Q

what is proteins primary structure?

A

• linear arrangement of amino

acids

107
Q

what is proteins secondary structure?

A

• regular spatial organization of

amino acid segments

108
Q

what is proteins tertiary structure?

A

• three-dimensional “folded”

shape of protein

109
Q

what is proteins quaternary structure?

A

• stable associations of multiple

protein molecules

110
Q

what is acquisition of high order structure in protein known as?

A

protein folding

111
Q

how does protein folding occure?

A

•Can be spontaneous or

catalyzed by “chaperones”

112
Q

what are oligomeric proteins?

A

Oligomeric proteins, by definition, are composed of more than one subunit (polypeptide chain)

113
Q

what illustrates serveral principals of protein structure?

A

hemoglobin

114
Q

what is oligomeric structure?

A

tetramer

of alpha and beta hemoglobin

115
Q

what is a lingand binding?

A

In biochemistry and pharmacology, a ligand is a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose

the ligand is usually a molecule which produces a signal by binding to a site on a target protein.

116
Q

where is the ligand binding in hemogloban

A

O2

117
Q

what is a mutation that can occur in hemoglobin?

A

sickle cell anemia

118
Q

what is the gene family structure in hemoglobin?

A

– alpha and
beta hemoglobin, related
myoglobin

119
Q

where do nucleic acids initiate at in a polynucleotide chain?

A

Nucleic acids initiate at the 5’ end

of a polynucleotide chain.

120
Q

which direction do RNA AND DNA always proceed?

A

DNA/RNA polymerization always
proceeds in the 5’
à 3’ direction

121
Q

how does protein synthesis occur?

A

Protein synthesis occurs by
adding new amino acids to the
carboxyl of the preceeding
residue

122
Q

where do protein start and end in their termini

A 
Proteins start at their NH2
-
termini and end at their COOH
-
termini
123
Q

what general formula do carbohydrates follow?

A

(CH2O)n

124
Q

what is n between in carbohydrates formula for simple sugars or monosaccarides?

A

3-7

125
Q

what is the primary functionality of carbohydrates?

A

hydroxyl = OH group is the
primary functionality of
carbohydrates

126
Q

what groups do monosaccharides include?

A

monosaccharides include C=O

groups and are either •aldoses = aldehyde groups •ketoses = ketone groups

127
Q

what is a key feature of understanding carboydrates functionality?

A

stereochemistry of
carbohydrates is a key feature of
their functionality

128
Q

what plays a key role in metabolism?

A

trioses play a key role in

intermediary metabolism • glyceraldehyde • dihydroxy acetone

129
Q

what are the most biologically important carbohydrates?

A

most biologically important

carbohydrates are hexoses, e.g. • glucose • galactose

130
Q

what is a key pentose involved in nucleic acid structure?

A

ribose

131
Q

are most carbohydrates are cyclized

in biological systems?

A

yes

132
Q

what are carboydrates polymerized to form?

A

carbohydrates polymerize to
form oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides

133
Q

what do oligosaccharides include?

A

• oligosaccharides include
important dietary components
• sucrose
• lactose

134
Q

what is sucrose?

A

disaccharide sugar,
major dietary
constituent/problem

135
Q

what is lactose?

A

– “milk sugar”; deficiency
of lactase leads to lactose
intolerance

136
Q

what do polysaccharides provide?

A
  • energy storage: starch, glycogen
  • structure: cellulose, chitin
  • recognition: on glycosylated proteins
137
Q

are lipids polar or nonpolar?

A

nonpolar

138
Q

what are lipids?

A

Lipids are non-polar organic
compounds with limited solubility
in water

139
Q

what are the two main types of lipids?

A
  • aliphatic derivatives

* fused ring compounds

140
Q

what are aliphatic derivatives lipids?

A

open
chain compunds derived from
fatty acids (e.g. oleic, stearic acids)

141
Q

what are fused ring compund lipids?

A

steroids, including cholesterol and

steroid hormones

142
Q

what are acyl glycerols –

A

– esters of fatty acids and glycerol; major

constituents of cell membranes and of fat

143
Q

what are steroids?

A

– specialized components of membranes

(cholesterol) and key hormones

144
Q

what are fatty acids?

A

alkyl chains of
varying length terminated by a
carboxylic acid group

145
Q

what is the structure of lipids?

A

The structure is typically made of a glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a phosphate group (hydrophilic).

146
Q

what is a saturated fatty acid?

A

no double bonds

147
Q

what is an unsaturated fatty acid?

A

contains double bond

148
Q

what do acyl glycerols and

phosphoacyl glycerols form ?

A

the major structural
components of biological
membrane

149
Q

what do Triglycerides function as?

A

energy storage

150
Q

what is the function of •Phosphoglycerides

A

membranes, signaling

151
Q

what is hydrophobic?

A

not soluable in water

152
Q

what is hydrophillic?

A

soluable in water

153
Q

are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophillic?

A

hydrophobic

154
Q

are polar groups hydrophobic or hydrophillic?

A

hydrophilic

155
Q

what happens if you combine hydrophobic and hydrophillic molecules?

A

combining groups creates
bifunctional molecules
–
amphipathic

156
Q

what is amphipathic

A

combining groups creates

bifunctional molecule

157
Q

what are micelles?

A 
• at a critical concentration
amphipathic compounds form
higher order structures
–these orient groups according to
interaction with water

•these principles underly the
structure of biological membranes

158
Q

what structure do micelles form?

A

•Double layered structure – lipid bilayer

159
Q

what are biological membranes formed from mainly?

A

• biological membranes are
formed mainly from phosphoacyl
lipids that arrange in a bilayer
much like an extended micelle

160
Q

why do membranes form barriers?

A

to diffusion

in the aqueous environment

161
Q

what does membranes forming barriers to diffusion

in the aqueous environment allow?

A

•This allows selective permeability or
entry/exit of molecules into the
cellular environment

162
Q

why do proteins associate with membranes?

A

to modify their properties

163
Q

what do •peripheral proteins do?

A

bound to the

surface of membranes

164
Q

what do •integral proteins do?

A

dissolved in

membrane, often spanning it

165
Q

what do membrane proteins provide for the cell?

A

crucial functions

166
Q

what are the crucial functions that membrane proteins provide for the cell?

A

• regulated transport – of nutrients
and ions

• cellular recognition
– specifying
cellular identity

  • Cell signaling
  • cell adhesion
  • excitability
167
Q

what is the cell?

A

the basic unit of all living species

168
Q

what did virchow discover about cells?

A 
All cells arise only from pre
-existing
cells (Virchow)
– through mitosis/binary
fission
169
Q

who is credited with formulation of the cell theory?

A

•M Schleiden and T Schwann

170
Q

what is cell theory?

A 
1. All living organisms are composed of
one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
3. All cells arise only from pre
-existing
cells (Virchow)
– through mitosis/binary
fission
171
Q

what are prokaryotes?

A

– bacteria and

archea – are the simplest cells

172
Q

what do prokaryotes consist of?

A

membrane that
encloses the cell

• a cell wall that provides stability
and support for the membrane

• a cytoplasm containing the
genome – DNA – and the
machinery for growth and
replication

173
Q

what to eukaryota comprise of?

A

eukaryota comprise species
that possess nuclei and other
membrane bound organelles
within their cytoplasm

174
Q

how did eukaryotic cells originate?

A

• originated through cellular
symbiosis = endosymbiosis
theory

175
Q

what does the nucleous harbor?

A

genome of the cell

176
Q

which organelles posses their own genomes?

A

•mitochondria and
chloroplasts and nucleous possess their
own genomes, including
ribosomal genes

177
Q

what are the 3 major groups of eukaryotic cells?

A

: plants,

animals and fung

178
Q

function of mitochondria

A

energy
metabolism/oxidative
phosphorylation

179
Q

function of chloroplast

A

– energy

metabolism/photosynthesis

180
Q

function of endoplasmic reticulum

A

membrane
system throughout the cell, regulates
protein synthesis, ionic homeostasis

181
Q

function of • golgi apparatus

A

organizes

transport to membrane

182
Q

function of •lysosomes

A

compartment for
intracellular digestion, containing
numerous hydrolases

183
Q

function of • peroxisomes

A

compartment for

various oxidative enzymes

184
Q

function of endosomes

A

trafficking vesicles

185
Q

what is the cytoskeleton

A

eukaryotic cells also contain a
network of filamentous organelles
collectively known as the
cytoskeleton

186
Q

what is the • actin filament network

A

functions in cell motility, analogous

to muscle at a microscopic scale

187
Q

what is the function of microtubules

A 
– provide cell
structure and intracellular
transport; also cell motility through
cilia and flagella and the mitotic
spindle
188
Q

what is the function of intermediate filaments?

A

– provide
structural support in nearly all
animal cells; major filament of skin
and hair

189
Q

what is cell differentiation

A

the process
of acquisition of distinctive cell
fate

190
Q

how many cell types do humans contain roughly?

A

200+

191
Q

what do transcriptional programmes

determine

A

gene expression
patterns and cell fate
determination

192
Q

how do animal cells reproduce?

A

by
duplicating their components
and undergoing fission

193
Q

what occurs during animal cell reproduction

A

precisely duplicate the
genome and segregate it into
daughter cells

194
Q

when does DNA replication take place?

A

during the s phase chromosomes are duplicated

195
Q

what phase are chromosomes segregated?

A

m-PHASE

196
Q

what seperates cells into daughters

A

cytokinesis

197
Q

what is G1(gap 1)

A

follows mitosis and
is a period of growth prior to S
-
phase

198
Q

what is G2(gap 2)

A

is a period of

preparation for mitosis following S-phase

199
Q

what are 3 types of filament?

A
  • actin filament(microfilament) - twisted two strand structure
  • microtubule-hallow tubes

intermediate filaments-rope like structure

200
Q

in 1945 who won the nobel prize for the discovery of penicillian?

A

Dr Alexander flemming

201
Q

why did domagk recieve tge nobel prize in 1939?

A

for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil

202
Q

who discovered stretomycin?

A

schatz and waksman

203
Q

what problem arose with antibiotics very quickly?

A

resistance to antibiotics

204
Q

what will happen by 2050 if no new antibiotics are discovered?

A

antimicrobial resistance deaths will be so high it will surpass the deaths cause by cancer

205
Q

how many distinct lineages of cells have been discovered?

A

3 phylogenetically distinct lineages of cells have been identified

206
Q

what is another term for lineages?

A

domains

207
Q

what causes lineages?

A

evolutionary diversification

208
Q

what are the 3 domains of life?

A

1: eukaryotes
2: bacteria
3: archaea

209
Q

what are the 3 macro organisms?

A

animals fungi and plants

210
Q

what are the crown species?

A

eukaryotic

211
Q

are all prokaryotes closely related?

A

no

212
Q

are archaea more closely related to eukaryotes or bacteria ?

A

eukaryotes

213
Q

what are prokaryotic microorganisms?

A

bacteria and archaea

214
Q

what are eukaryotic mircroorganisms?

A

fungi, protozoa, algae

215
Q

what are non cellular microorganisms?

A

viruses

216
Q

features of prokaryotes?

A

no nucleus
cell wall
no cell organelles

217
Q

what are features of eukaryotic cells?

A

nucelus
no cell wall
cell organelles

218
Q

what is a genome?

A

The bacterial genome or chromosome contains the bacterial genetic information. Plasmids may also be present

219
Q

what is cytoplasmic membrane

A

The cytoplasmic membrane surrounds the cytoplasm

Vital cell structure which acts as a barrier between the cytoplasm and environment

Highly selective permeability barrier involved in nutrient uptake and excretion of metabolic waste products

220
Q

what is the cell wall

A

Rigid layer surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane

221
Q

what is the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria?

A

Covers the cell wall and acts as a molecular sieve

222
Q

what will a gram positive cell surface look like

A

smooth

223
Q

what will a gram negative cell surface look like?

A

ridges /textured

224
Q

what would a break in the cell membrane result in?

A

loss of cell integrity and lysis

225
Q

what is a cell membrane composed of?

A

lipids and phosphates primarily (phospholipid bilayer

also some proteins

226
Q

describe the cell wall in terms of hydrophillic and hydrophobic

A

the outer layers of glycerol and phosphates are hydrophillic

the inner layer of fatty acids are hydrophobic

227
Q

why is the core of the cytoplasmic membrane hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophobic core of cytoplasmic membrane prevents water soluble nutrients leaking out of the cell

228
Q

why could the hydrophbic core of cytoplasmic membrane be a bad thing?

A

it prevents nutrients diffusing into cell

229
Q

how is the prbroblem of the Hydrophobic core of cytoplasmic membrane preventing nutrients diffusing into cell solved

A

Requires special transport proteins in the membrane

230
Q

what do bacterial cells contain a high levvel of?

A

high concentrates of dissolved solutes(salts sugars etc)

231
Q

what is the function of the cell wall

A

Generates a high pressure within the cell caused by the cytoplasm pressing against the cell envelope (similar to pressure in car tyre)

1Cell wall allows cell to withstand turgor pressure

2Gives the cell shape and rigidity

232
Q

what is peptidoglycan

A

the principal component of the cell wall, is a
unique polysaccharide which gives the cell its characteristic
shape and prevents osmotic lysis

233
Q

what is gram positive bacterial cell wall

A

Many peptidoglycan layers

90% of cell envelope material

234
Q

what is a gram negative cell wall?

A

One peptidoglycan layer

2-20% of cell envelope material

BO201 Molecular and Cellular Biology (3 decks)

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