Theme 1 (Ethical Thought)

Question 1

1) What is Divine Command Theory?

2) How is God the regulator of morality?

Answer 1

1) An ethical framework which focuses on the idea that morality is determined by God’s commands

2) God has the authority to command what is right and wrong and humans are expected to follow this. Good behaviours are only seen as good because God commanded them.

Question 2

How is right and wrong based on objective truth?

+ why is objective truth based on God’s command?

Answer 2

DCT suggests that there are absolute moral standards that are not influenced by human emotions or opinions. (These are fundamentally based on God’s commands)

+ God is seen as the embodiment of goodness and therefore his commands reflect an ultimate standard of morality

Question 3

How is moral goodness achieved through complying with the command?

+ examples to support this

Answer 3

When people follow God’s command they align themselves with the ultimate moral standard. Some believe you will face wrath if you don’t follow this

+ e.g Adam & Eve being banished from the Garden of Eden
+ Qu’ran states you cannot be morally good if you commit adultery

Question 4

Why is DCT a requirement of God’s omnipotence?

+ why is DCT an objective Metaphysical Foundation for Morality?

Answer 4

• if moral laws existed independently of God his authority and power would be diminished
• an all powerful being must have power over everything including morality

+ it establishes a clear connection between God’s will and moral truths which provides stability & guidance in decision making
+ if the universe was created by a personal moral being it makes sense that morality came from this

Question 5

What is Robert Adams’ ‘Modified Divine Command Theory’ and why is it based on God’s omnibenevolence?​

Answer 5

• God is a perfectly good being and a key feature of his character is omnibenevolence
• Therefore, his commands and morality reflect his omnibenevolence
• God and good exist independently of each other

Question 6

What is the Euthyphro Dilemma?

+ who inspired it?​

Answer 6

• The critical question of “Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?”
• DCT could allow God to command evil

+ Ancient Greek philosopher Plato inspired the concept through his character named Euthyphro.​

Question 7

What is the Arbitrariness Problem?

Answer 7

• The Divine Command Theory appears to propose that morality is arbitrary and therefore is based on God’s own personal whim not an ethical system
• God’s whim is not an adequate foundation for universal morality.

Question 8

What is the Pluralism Objection?

+ examples to support this idea

Answer 8

The idea that in a world of many religions it is essentially impossible for us to know which god’s commands to follow.

​This is worsened by the fact that some religious commands from the same being contradict each other

+ Catholics see contraception as a sin but Protestants don’t.
+ In Islam divorce is morally acceptable unlike in Christianity

Question 9

Divine Command Theory Key Quotes

Answer 9

” God’s commands are the standard for moral rightness” (Adams)

“If God commands us to do something, it is morally obligatory” (Craig)

“God sets the moral rules and God’s rules apply to all”​ (Baggini)

“Morality… is ultimately grounded in the perfect nature of God” (Austin)

“Is what is morally good commanded by God because it is morally good, or is it morally good because it is commanded by God?” (Plato)

Question 10

What type of ethical system is Virtue Theory?

Answer 10

• emphasises the importance of an individual’s character
• focus on consequences of actions or rules governing actions
• focuses on the development of virtues and reduction of vices as this means behaving in a morally correct manner

Question 11

Why is there a focus on the person’s character rather than their actions? (VT)

Answer 11

• belief that a person’s actions are reflections of their character
• a virtuous person will naturally make the right choices because their character is aligned w moral values
• encourages cultivation of good character traits that lead to ethical behaviour

Question 12

What are Aristotle’s moral issues? (two types of virtue?)

Answer 12

Moral Virtues are acquired through habit and are essential for achieving ‘eudaimonia’
e.g courage, temperance & justice

Intellectual Virtues are related to our minds and improving the quality of them (developed via education)
e.g intelligence, wisdom & prudence

Question 13

What is the Doctrine of the Mean?

+ example

• how did Aristotle believe this occured?

Answer 13

Another one of Aristotle’s moral issues. He argued that achieving each virtue is done by balancing two extremes or vices (deficiency and excess)

+ courage is the mean between rashness & cowardice

• via practice (if you carry out the golden mean you will be an accepted, successful member of the community)

Question 14

What is Phronesis?

Answer 14

Practical wisdom
- this helps people decide what the ‘golden mean’ action is in any moral situation.
- needed as the mid-point is not fixed and may vary depending on the situation.

Question 15

What are Aristotle’s Moral Issues based on?

Answer 15

• the idea of eudaimonia or happiness from being a successful member of the community
• the development of character through the practice of moral virtues

Question 16

What are Jesus’ teachings about Virtues? (The Beatitudes)

+ examples

Answer 16

Each virtue mentioned is considered ‘blessed’ and has a spiritual reward that comes with it. Jesus’ blessing is praise in recognition of the virtuous quality shown

+ “Blessed are the merciful” (virtue of compassion)
+ “Blessed are the peacemakers” (virtue of justice)

Question 17

Why are virtues not a practical guide to moral behaviour?

Answer 17

+ they sometimes lack specificity in guiding individual actions
+ may be interpreted differently in different contexts
+ can ignore external factors influencing behaviour
+ can be unhelpful in moral dilemmas

Question 18

What are the issues of Cultural Relativism and Virtue Theory?

Answer 18

• moral values and virtues are not universal and vary between diff cultures
• virtues may be seen as v important in one culture and unimportant in another
• criticised for taking too much of an individualistic approach

Question 19

How can virtues be used for immoral acts?

Answer 19

+ people can use virtues to perform evil/bad actions e.g killing someone using your courage
+ there is also no guarantee that a moral outcome is achieved via an action as the consequences for others are not considered.

Question 20

Virtue Theory Key Quotes

Answer 20

“The good for man is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue” (Aristotle)

“eudamonia… is an activity in accordance with virtue” (Mackie)

“Every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good”​ (Aristotle)

“Virtue… is a mean between two vices” (Aris)

“the virtues are those qualities that enable us to achieve good ends” (Foot)

“Virtue is not a solidarity state; it is something we achieve within a community” (MacIntyre)

Question 21

What is altruism?

+ How does Ethical Egoism focus on self-interest as opposed to altruism?

(which religious idea does this link to?)

Answer 21

selfless concern for the well-being of others. Acting in a way which promotes the interest of others, often at a personal cost

+ acting out of self-interest to ensure that the outcome is advantageous for yourself
+ individuals have a moral obligation to prioritise their own needs & desires to maximize their own well-being

Question 22

How does this ethical theory match the moral agent’s psychological state?​

+ what evidence is there to support this?

Answer 22

humans are naturally motivated by self-interest as so humans should follow Ethical Egoism as this supports our natural psychological state

+ survival instinct

Question 23

What is psychological egoism?

(Religious link?)

+ how does this contrast to Ethical Egoism?

Answer 23

a theory which argues that ethical egoism is our natural state
- see altruistic actions as egotistical because either sub/consciously we do them for self gain e.g to feel good about yourself
(Aquinas’ apparent goods)

+ ethical egoism prescribes how we “ought always to act self-interestedly” (Driver).

Question 24

Why is there a concentration on long-term self-interests rather than short-term interests?

+ example

Answer 24

• fulfilling short term interests may have terrible effects on the moral agent in the long-term​
• encourages individuals to consider broader implications of their choices

+ donating to charity may be part of a long term plan such as wanting to gain good karma to go to Moksha

Question 25

Why are virtues not a practical guide to moral behaviour but ethical egoism is?

Answer 25

• Virtues can be subjective and vary across different cultures
• Ethical egoism provides a clear framework
• It is more practical and leads to consistent behaviour

Question 26

Who is Max Stirner?

+ why is he linked to Ethical Egoism?

Answer 26

Max Stirner was a philosopher who published his own work titled ‘The Ego and Its Own’.

+ he is seen as one of the forerunners of Ethical Egoism
+ he advocates for individual’s right to pursue their own interests without moral constraints imposed by society

Question 27

Why is self-interest the root cause of every human action even if it appears altruistic?​

Answer 27

Stirner argues that the underlying objective of people’s behaviour is obligation

• humans are bound by moral duty due to the likes of religion
• humans believe they are free to make choices but the feeling of happiness they desire is only related to what their conscience tells them is their duty

Question 28

Why is there a rejection of egoism for material gain?

Answer 28

• it does not condone actions that exploit others for material gain
• true self-interest involves respecting the rights & dignity of others
• Stirner sees material gain as one part of the ego and by only pursuing this we are denying the development of other parts

Question 29

What is the Union of Egoists?

+ why is it linked with ethical egoism?

Answer 29

Stirner’s view that people can form voluntary associations based on self-interest.They would join based on 3 principles:

• free agreement
• equality of all members
• mutual self-interest of those involved

+ Encourages individuals to co-operate with others without sacrificing autonomy

Question 30

Why is the destruction of community ethos a criticism of ethical egoism?

Answer 30

• possibly destroying community ethos as it promotes the interest of the individual over the interest of the people as a whole
• undermines social cohesion & collaboration
• laws are there to benefit the majority but Stirner believes individuals should choose to agree/disagree with state’s demands

Question 31

What social injustices could occur as individuals put their own interests first?​

+ How is ethical egoism a form of bigotry (why is one moral agent more important than any other?

Answer 31

• pursuing your own self-interest can lead to exploitation and the suffering of others
• this can create social injustices and oppression of the less powerful

+ seems to encourage bigotry as it involves dividing society into ‘me’ and ‘others’. As a consequence, discrimination is likely to occur as people are only pursuing their own self-interests

Question 32

Ethical Egoism Key Quotes

Answer 32

“Ethical egoism gives no moral weight to the interests of others” (Rachels)

“An ethical egoism would have no reason to help others or to avoid harming them if it conflicted with their own interests” (Rachels)

“Ethical egoism…holds that all actions ought to be motivated by self-interest” (Driver)

“Ethical egoism endorses selfishness, but it doesn’t enjoy foolishness” (Rachels)

“The religious way of thinking has biased our mind so grievously that we are terrified of ourselves” (Stirner)

“He is an unfree man in the garment of freedom” (Stirner)