Theme 1 - change and challenge in the workplace Flashcards
why was there change in industry during the interwar period?
British industry after WW1 was based in heavy industry. This was previously beneficial for England but old machinery and methods meant they couldn’t compete with foreign competitors (e.g USA)
light industry emerged in the Midlands and the southeast
how did interwar industrial change create ‘two Englands’?
differentiation between old and new centres of industry
cotton, mining, and ship building each lost 1/3 of their workforce
workforce for making electrical appliances increased 2.5x
service industry workforce increased by 40% during the 30s
what happened to the number of strikes after WW1?
decreased from 32 million days lost in 1919 to 25 million in 1920
however, after the brief post-war boom, unemployment increased and wages slumped
1921: 84 million days lost
what led to the Miners’ strike (1921)?
1921: government control of coal mines ended and they returned to private industry.
Wages were cut and hours lengthened n order to compete with foreign coal imports - owners were able to do this because, due to high unemployment, miners didn’t have other work to go to
MFGB, NTWF, and NUR discussed united strike
what occurred during the Miners’ strike (1921)?
15th April (Black Friday) - NUR and NTWF didn’t strike with MFGB as they hadn’t been included in negotiations
15th April - 28th June - miners were on strike.
Eventually they were forced to end it as they couldn’t beat the mine owners alone
what was the outcome of the Miners’ Strike (1921)?
miners were forced to accept pay cuts - wages were left 20% lower than in 1914
what caused the General Strike (1926)?
government had offered a subsidy to mine owners to maintain miners’ pay until May. When the subsidy was coming to an end, the miners were told they’d have to accept pay cuts and a lockout was threatened if they didn’t agree
March: a 13.5% pay cut was recommended for miners
May: 1 mill miners locked out for refusing lower waged
TUC announced general strike would begin on 3rd May - allowed unions to strike if they had common interest with miners
how did the government respond to the General Strike (1926)?
well prepared:
- published its own propaganda paper (the ‘British Gazette’)
- used BBC to broadcast radio messages in support of the government
- Labour distanced itself from the strikers
the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies was founded to do the work the strikers refused to
what was the outcome of the General Strike (1926)?
catastrophic failure for miners - wages for miners were slashed and the industry loft 30% of its jobs
1927 Trades Dispute Act prevented sympathetic strikes and mass picketing
resulted in weakened union activity throughout the 30s
union activity during the 30s
weakened by aftermath of General Strike
unemployment of the Great Depression caused decrease in union membership from 8 mill (1922) to 4.5 mill (1932)
National Unemployed Workers’ Movement grew in size but was still small compared to unions such as MFGB
areas of heavy industry were still poverty-stricken, and union action was unable to alleviate these conditions
what impact did WW2 have on employment?
movement to war production brought full employment and brought women into factories
- 1944: 33% of civilian population involved in war work, included 7 million women
legislation and policies (e.g Bevin Boys) created more opportunities for work
working conditions improved - unemployment decreased, working conditions, wages, and benefits improved
- however, hours were long
Essential Work Order (1941)
Bevin, Minister of Labour, tied people to jobs considered essential for the war effort
1939 Control of Employment Act
allowed semi-skilled workers to undertake formerly skilled jobs
who were the Bevin Boys?
1943: policy began in which 10% of young men were conscripted into the coal mines rather than the military service
why did employment improve in the post-war period?
40s-70s: both parties maintained a commitment to full employment, which was partly possible due to favourable economic conditions throughout 50s and 60s
48-70: unemployment hardly rose above 2% (only for 8/22 years)
how did improvement of post-war work opportunities affect industrial relations?
employers had to keep skilled workers in their workplace, so used good wages and conditions
employers often offered benefits to workers (cheap canteen facilities, social functions, sports clubs, etc)
what factors were there for increased employment opportunities in the period 1945-70?
better education and an economy that remained strong allowed people more choice and flexibility in their employment
development in technology led to more white-collar and technological jobs (light engineering, provision of consumer goods, etc)
work in factors (40s-70s)
car industry was a major employer
1956: over 500,000 were employed in the production for motor vehicles
the tedium of factory work was a continuing problem
the pay was a benefit.
- average weekly earnings for men doubled from £8.30 (1951) to £15.35 (1961) and then £30.93 (1971).
- retail prices grew by 63% but weekly wages rose by 88%.
why did the 70s see a growth in unemployment?
government abandoned commitment for full employment
decline in heavy industry means industrial areas of Britain experienced more unemployment as places of employment closed
1976: Labour admitted that the working opportunities of the post-war period were no longer possible
1939 Emergency Powers Act
allowed the government to issue whatever controls and regulations it felt were necessary to pursue the war effort
effectively gabe Bevin complete control over the British workforce
1940 Defence Regulation 58AA
banned strikes and lockouts
wartime strikes
1942: miners went on strike illegally
Bevin Boys often went on strike due to their low pay in comparison to older, more experienced mine workers
1944: 100,000 Welsh miners went on unofficial strike for better wages and government quickly relented
industrial relations (1945-51)
during the war, union leaders were appointed to government bodies on wages, industry, and social policy, and this continued in the post-war period
- union leaders had more access to decision making and their views were frequently heard in government
- 1939: union leaders sat on 12 government committees
- 1949: sat on 60
TUC and Labour shared similar views on economic and social priorities
Labour repealed 1927 Trade Disputes Act, which restored the union much of its power in industrial disputes
what happened to union membership during 50s and 60s?
high employment and high membership
new prosperous union leadership emerged and they had lifestyles far removed from the poorest members
- they also had different expectations due to having lived through austerity of the depression and war, weren’t heavily influenced by post-war materialism
many members felt they had more in common with militant and unpaid shop stewards
- stewards experienced growth in power, which led to more confrontational unions in 60s and 70s
why was there a deterioration in relations in the 40s-70s
45-54: approx 1,751 strikes per year
55-65: 2,521 per year (involved over 1.1 mill workers)
unions became a convenient excuse for economic troubles (blamed by newspapers such as ‘The Times’) and were a source of resentment for much of the middle class
there was a growing perception among British public of unionised men being lazy, obstructive, and too powerful
what were wildcat strikes?
strikes not officially sanctioned by the unions of TUC
why were wildcat strikes a problem?
they increased during the 60s - 90% of strike action was unofficial and the TUC was unable to control members
throughout the 60s, average of 3 million days lost each year
1968: 4.7 million
problem for Labour who were seen as sympathetic to unions
why was there an increase of militancy in the 60s?
rising inflation
growth in affluence only benefited professions with above-inflation pay increases - most unionised professions (particularly miners) were exempt from this
pay increases were often cancelled out by inflation - prosperity of 50s and early 60s was being reversed
what was ‘In Place of Strife’ (1969)?
White Paper by Barbara Castle that proposed:
- government could order a strike ballot before official industrial action took place if a strike was deemed a threat to the economy
- workers in unofficial strikes cold be ordered back to work
- disagreements between unions in the workplace would go to an industrial board who would hand down a legally binding verdict
- a strike that broke these rules could be declared illegal and the union could face fines and members could be imprisoned
what was the outcome of ‘In Place of Strife’ (1969)?
when published, it received widespread public support but unions opposed it
Labour Party became divided when Callaghan opposed it - Wilson feared for his job and the legislation was scrapped
resulted in victory for the unions
1971 Industrial Relations Act
attempted to introduce Barbara Castle’s measures
ineffective because TUC refused to cooperate
Heath’s government hesitated in enforcing its own rules
what led to the miners’ strike in the 70s?
consistently underpaid and undervalued in 60s, missed out on nation’s prosperity
60s: Britain’s coal industry shrunk
- National Coal Board (NCB) closed over 400 pits and 420,000 miners were made redundant
- other miners received lower wages
the miners’ strike (1972)
70s - unofficial strikes broke out in north of England and South Wales
1971: second ballot was successful and strike began in Jan 1972
what was Arthur Scargill’s role in the 1972 strike?
used a group of 1,000 miners to blockade power stations and coal depots
this expanded to 40,000 miners picketing 500 sites across the country
- resulted in reduced electricity output to 25%
successfully shut down the Saltley Gate coal depot in Birmingham
what was the outcome of the 1972 miners’ strike?
Heath hadn’t sufficiently planned and had no available resourced to beat it
government yielded and offered a 27% pay rise
why was a second strike called in 1973?
1973 oil crisis left the country dependent on coal, so NUM saw this as an opportunity for pay increases
what was the outcome of the 1973 strike?
coal-fired power stations ran short on supplies and electricity production declined
- led to power cuts
- government declared a state of emergency and ordered a three-day working week (Jan-March 1974)
how does the outcome of the 1974 election reflect public opinion?
Heath used the slogan ‘Who governs Britain?’, asking voters to back him against the unions
Conservatives were defeated - public had no confidence in their ability to deal with the unions
what was the ‘social contract’?
a policy introduced by the 1974 Labour government
government would offer subsidies in return for unions not pursuing excessive wage claims
however, union bosses were becoming less influential compared to shop stewards and members were less willing to stick to 6% rises during a period of 27% inflation
what led to the ‘winter of discontent’ (1978/9)?
inflation increased in 1978 and so a strict 5% increase was enforced for low-paid workers
Ford attempted to enforce the government’s pay policy
- in response, 15,000 workers went on strike
- Ford then offered a rise of 17%, which showed the social contract was unenforceable
government had no way of enforcing pay restraint so unions seized the opportunity to gain pay increases
winter of discontent - haulage strike
Dec 78: lorry drivers began overtime ban and demanded 40% pay rise
Transport and General Workers’ Union (TGWU) picketed oil refineries - petrol couldn’t reach stations and heating oil couldn’t reach schools, hospitals, or homes
- exacerbated by longest, coldest winter since 1947
winter of discontent - public sector strike
Jan 79: public sector unions tried to ensure their members got the same pay rises as employees in the private sector
Royal College of Nursing demanded 25% wage increase
public sector unions lost control of their members as members declared strike action in vital services
- hospital patients had to use London Underground to get to hospital appointments
- mountains of rubbish in city centres as refuse collectors went on strike
strikes gradually decreases as strikers either got their pay increases or decided to return to work anyway
what was the shift in public attitudes by the end of the 70s?
dissatisfaction about the power of the unions
- 1969: 60% of people had positive views of the unions
- 1979: 20%
1979: Thatcher was elected and promised to reduce union power
