The Weimar republic 1918-1929

Question 1

Describe what happened to Germany when the First World War ended.

Answer 1

• On 11 November 1918 World War One ended when an armistice was agreed with the Allies (Britain, France and the USA) and Germany surrendered.
• Germany was left scarred and crumbling.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated to Holland on 10 November 1918
• Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became the first German president and declared Germany a republic.

Question 2

What was the impact on the First World War on Germany?

Answer 2

• 2 million German troops died and over four million were wounded.
• Government debts increased from 50 billion marks to 150 billion marks.
• More than 750k Germans died because of food shortages.
• The devastating effects of the war left many people no option other than to revolt by striking and rioting.

Question 3

What was the treaty of Versailles?

Answer 3

• The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 and consisted of 440 Articles setting out the terms for Germany’s punishment. The treaty was greeted with shock and disbelief in Germany.
• The Covenant of the League of Nations - Germany was not allowed to join.
• The Rhineland was demilitarised - the German army was not allowed to go there.
• The Saar, with its rich coalfields, given to France for 15 years.
• Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.
• Germany forbidden to unite with Austria.
• Lands in eastern Germany - the rich farmlands of Posen and the Polish corridor between Germany and East Prussia - given to Poland.
• Danzig made a free city under League of Nations control.
• All Germany’s colonies taken and given to France and Britain as ‘mandates’.
• The German army restricted to 100,000 men.
• The German navy restricted to six battleships and no submarines.
• Germany not allowed to have an air force.
• Germany was responsible for causing all the loss and damage caused by the war.
• Germany would have to pay reparations, to be decided later - eventually set at 132 billion gold marks. 6600 million was to be paid in yearly instalments to the Allies to repair damage in their countries..

Question 4

Why did the Germans feel they were stabbed in the back after WW1?

Answer 4

German people never believed their army had been defeated in the war. Those who criticised the treaty said that the army had been betrayed by politicians - that they were ‘stabbed in the back’ and forced to surrender when they could have won.

Question 5

How was the Weimar Republic Formed?

Answer 5

• The Council of People’s representatives organised elections in January 1919 to create a new parliament. Germany was now a democracy, the people would say how the country was run.
• Friedrich Ebert became the first president as a leader of the SPD a moderate party of socialists.
• In February 1919 the member of the new Reichstag (parliament) met at Weimar to create a new constitution, Weimar was chosen as their was still unrest in Berlin.

Question 6

Describe the Weimar Constitution

Answer 6

Head of State - President:
- Head of the Weimar Republic
- Elected by the people every seven years
- Had some important political powers for example the president chose the chancellor.
- Could suspend the constitution and pass laws by decree
The Government
Chancellor
- Head of Government in the Weimar Republic
- Chose all Government ministers
Cabinet
- The main decision making body of the Government
The Parliament
Made up of two houses, normally all laws had to pas through both houses, voted in by proportional representation.
Reichstag
- The more powerful of the two houses
- Controlled taxation
- Directly elected by the people at least once every four years.
Reichsrat
- Also elected every four years
- It represented the regions of germany
-Each region sent a certain number of representatives depending on its size.

The electorate consisted of all men and women of 21 years old and over.

Question 7

What were the strengths of the Weimar Constitution?

Answer 7

• Proportional representation made sure small parties had a fair share of seats
• Women able to vote as well as men
• Voting age reduced from 25 to 21
• No one group or person could have too much power.
• There was an election for president every seven years.
• Central government was more powerful than before, but local government still retained power in the regions
• The Reichsrat could regulate the power of the Reichstag by delaying new laws.

Question 8

What were the weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution?

Answer 8

• Proportional representation led to coalition governments that were unstable or found it difficult to have strong policies and often fell apart.
• Lack of strong government let to weakness in a crisis that ended up with the president passing laws without prior consent of the Reichstag. Article 48 of the constitution enabled the president to do this.
• It was not the choice of the people so was not that popular.

Question 9

Why was the Weimar republic so unpopular?

Answer 9

The treaty of Versailles played an important part in the failure of the Weimar Republic. It harmed the Republic’s popularity, and created economic and political unrest that hindered the government for years.
Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice in November 1918 - they called them the November criminals. The defeat in the war came as a huge surprise to the German people, and many ordinary German soldiers, which led to a theory that the brave German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians.
In early 1919 the victorious Allies met to discuss how to punish Germany and on 28 June 1919 the new German government was forced to sign a peace settlement called the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty punished Germany militarily, territorially and financially. Many Germans felt their country had received a very harsh deal in the treaty and resented the government for agreeing to its conditions. However, German government had been given an ultimatum – sign within five days or risk invasion.

Question 10

Describe the challenges from left wing politics to the Weimar republic.

Answer 10

The threat from the Left: The Spartacist Uprising

• During 5 – 12 January 1919, 50,000 members of the post-World War One Communist Party, known as the Spartacists, rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.
• The government was saved when, through the army, it armed bands of ex-soldiers, known as the Freikorps, who defeated the Spartacist rebels.
• In the aftermath, communist workers’ councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist People’s Government took power in Bavaria.
• Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed by the Freikorps after being arrested on the 15th. Luxemburg’s body was dumped in a canal.
• By May 1919 the Freikorps had crushed all of these uprisings.

Question 11

Describe the challenges from right wing politics to the Weimar republic.

Answer 11

The threat from the Right: The Kapp Putsch

• In crushing the communists the Freikorps had saved the government, but the terms of the Treaty of Versailles meant Germany’s army had to be significantly reduced and the Freikorps had to be disbanded.
• During 13 - 17 March 1920, as a reaction to this, the right-wing nationalist, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led a Freikorps takeover in Berlin.
• The regular army refused to attack the Freikorps; Kapp was only defeated when the workers of Berlin went on strike and refused to cooperate with him.

Question 12

What happened when Germany missed their reparations in 1922?

Answer 12

The Weimar government’s main crisis occurred in 1923 after the Germans missed a reparations payment late in 1922. This set off a chain of events that included occupation, hyperinflation and rebellions.
In November 1922 Germany was unable to make its reparations payment as scheduled. The first reparations payment had taken all she could afford to pay.
In response, France and Belgium sent troops into Germany’s main industrial area, the Ruhr Valley. Their aim was to confiscate industrial goods as reparations payments as they didn’t believe Germany was unable to pay the second instalment. They occupied coal mines, railways, steel works and factories – all things that were important to Germany’s economy.
The German government ordered workers to follow a policy of ‘passive resistance’ – refusing to work or co-operate with the foreign troops and in return the government continued to pay their wages.
The French responded firmly – in the Krupp steel works, workers refusing to take orders were shot at. Other people were expelled from the Ruhr region altogether. Overall, 132 were killed and approximately 150,000 expelled from the area.
The immediate consequences of the occupation were not good for the Weimar government – they had to print more money to pay the French, and workers in the region, and this led to hyperinflation. A general strike (when all the workers in the country stopped work) was called, and political instability was rife.

Question 13

Describe the Hyperinflation crisis in 1923.

Answer 13

Germany was already suffering from high levels of inflation due to the effects of the war and the increasing government debt.
‘Passive resistance’ meant that whilst the workers were on strike fewer industrial goods were being produced, which weakened the economy still further.
In order to pay the striking workers the government simply printed more money. This flood of money led to hyperinflation as the more money was printed, the more prices rose.
Prices ran out of control, for example a loaf of bread, which cost 250 marks in January 1923, had risen to 200,000 million marks in November 1923.
By autumn 1923 it cost more to print a note than the note was worth.
During the crisis, workers were often paid twice per day because prices rose so fast their wages were virtually worthless by lunchtime.

Question 14

Who were the hyperinflation winners.

Answer 14

• Borrowers, such as businessmen, landowners and those with mortgages, found they were able to pay back their loans easily with worthless money.
• People on wages were relatively safe, because they renegotiated their wages every day. However, even their wages eventually failed to keep up with prices.
• Farmers coped well, since their products remained in demand and they received more money for them as prices spiralled.

Question 15

Who were the hyperinflation losers.

Answer 15

• People on fixed incomes, like students, pensioners or the sick, found their incomes did not keep up with prices.
• People with savings and those who had lent money, for example to the government, were the most badly hit as their money became worthless.

Question 16

How did the Republic recover in 1924-1929?

Answer 16

• In 1923, the Weimar Republic was on the verge of collapse socially and economically. But surprisingly, this crisis was followed by a period of relative stability and success. The period 1924-1929 was a time when the Weimar economy recovered and cultural life in Germany flourished.
• This dramatic turnabout happened in large part because of the role played by Gustav Stresemann who became Chancellor in August 1923 during the hyperinflation crisis. This was a time when prices in Germany went up quicker than people could spend their money and the German currency lost its value. Stresemann was Chancellor for only three months but continued to serve as Foreign Minister, rebuilding and restoring Germany’s international status until his death in October 1929, ironically just weeks before the Wall Street Crash that would end Weimar’s period of greater prosperity and stability.
• The end of hyperinflation - Stresemann’s single greatest achievement as Chancellor was to end hyperinflation. He did this in just three months by:
  Calling off the ‘passive resistance’ of German workers in the Ruhr. This helped Germany’s economy because goods were back in production and the Government could stop printing money to pay striking workers.
  Promising to begin reparations payments again. This persuaded France and Belgium to end the occupation of the Ruhr by 1925.
  Introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark. This stabilised prices as only a limited number were printed meaning money rose in value. This helped to restore confidence in the German economy both internally and internationally.
  Reducing the amount of money the government spent (700,000 government employees lost their jobs) so that its budget deficit reduced.

Question 17

Describe the Dawes Plan 1924

Answer 17

The payment of reparations, which had caused the hyperinflation crisis in the first place, had to resume, but Stresemann’s decisive actions in the autumn of 1923 gained Germany the sympathy of the Allies. They agreed to renegotiate payments and this led to two new repayment plans in the next 5 years:

• In 1924, Charles Dawes, an American banker, designed a plan so Germany could pay it reperations.
• Instalments were temporarily reduced to £50 million a year
• US banks agreed to make loans to German industry. The allies felt more confident that they would get their reperations payments.

Question 18

Describe the Young Plan 1929

Answer 18

In August 1929 a committee set up by the Allies and led by an American banker called Owen Young, proposed a plan.
- The Young plan reduced the total reparations debt from 6.6 billion to 2 billion
The payments could be made over a longer time, up until 1988
- Lower reparations meant lower taxes for German People
- There was a lot of opposition, especially from the extreme political parties, like the Nazis, who felt it was extending the burden for future generations.

Question 19

How did the economy improve in 1928.

Answer 19

The Wiemar Republics economy improved because:

• industrial output doubled by 1928 and finally passed pre First World war levels
• employment and trade increased

Question 20

Describe the Locarno Pact 1925

Answer 20

Locarno Treaties 1925.
In October 1925 Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect their post-Versailles borders,
- whilst Germany agreed with Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle any border disputes peacefully. Germany had previously complained bitterly about their loss of territory.
- the Allies and Germany agreed to the permanent demilitarisation of the Rhineland
- German membership of the League of Nations was up for discussion.

Question 21

Why was the Locarno Pact as success for Germany

Answer 21

• It improved relations with France due to the border agreement
• It increased the status and popularity of the Weimar republic
• It helped boost confidence in more moderate political parties

Question 22

What was the League of Nations

Answer 22

This was a new international body that hoped to discuss world problems in order to avoid resorting to war. It was set up in 1920 but Germany was initially excluded. In 1926 they were invited to join and become a member of the council.
By signing the Locarno Treaties Germany showed that it was accepting the Versailles settlement and so a year later was accepted as a permanent member of the Council of League, making it one of the most powerful countries in the League.

Question 23

Why was membership of the League of Nations a success for Germany?

Answer 23

• It showed Germany’s view counted

- It boosted the confidence held by most Germans in the Weimar Government.

Question 24

Describe the Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928

Answer 24

Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928. Germany was one of 62 countries that signed up to this agreement, which committed its signatories to settling disputes between them peacefully and avoiding the use of war to achieve foreign policy objectives.

Question 25

Why was the Kellogg Briand pact a success for Germany?

Answer 25

It showed that Germany was once again a major power.
It showed that moderate political parties could build Germany’s strength internationally.
It increased public confidence in how Germany was being led.

Question 26

Describe how Stressemann’s foreign policy helped to stabilise Germany

Answer 26

Gustav Stresemann resigned the chancellorship in November 1923, but stayed as foreign secretary until 1929. As Foreign Secretary, Stresemann oversaw a dramatic improvement in Germany’s relationship with the rest of Europe between 1925 and 1928 by overseeing the Locarno Pact, membership of the league of nations and Kellogg Briand pact.
He strengthened the confidence of the German people in the Weimar Republic
Reduced the support for extremist policitial parties like the Nazis and communists
Increased support for moderate parties
Reduced the economic hardships of the German people.

Question 27

What improvements did the workers and women of Germany see in the period of 1924-1929

Answer 27

Hourly wages rose in real terms (ie above inflation) every year from 1924 to 1930, with a rise of 10 per cent in 1928 alone.
Pensions and sickness benefits schemes were introduced.
Compulsory unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927, which covered 17 million workers.
Government subsidies were provided for the building of local parks, schools and sports facilities, and there was a massive programme of council house construction.

Question 28

Describe the changes in the position of Women in work in the Weimar Republic

Answer 28

German women contributed massively to the war effort during World War One. However, after the war the government ordered women to return to their pre-war roles, either in low-skilled jobs or in the home, to allow returning soldiers to take up work:
Women experienced pressure to return to their ‘traditional’ role as wives and mothers.
However, attitudes towards women and work changed according to how well the economy did.
During times of economic crisis, such as the hyperinflation of 1923 and during the Great Depression, women returning home were seen as a solution to the problem of unemployment.
However, during the recovery of the mid-1920s women were welcomed into the workforce. The number of women in work was 1.7 million higher in 1925 than it had been in 1907.
Women were increasingly taking on white collar jobs, though these were mainly done by single women under 25.
Overall, the percentage of women in work only rose by less than 1 per cent between 1907 and 1925.

Question 29

Describe the changes in the position of Women in politics in the Weimar Republic

Answer 29

Politics
German women achieved the vote on an equal basis with men when the new German constitution was announced in August 1919, along with the right to be elected to the Reichstag and all other governmental bodies. There is evidence that women’s roles in politics grew during the Weimar Republic, but there were also limitations to the progress they made:
Progress
Women participated in democracy
Women’s voting turnout in the elections for the National Assembly in January 1919 was the same as men’s at 82 per cent.
Politicians recognised women
Political parties quickly realised the need to appeal to the women’s vote and much propaganda was directed towards them.
Women became politicians
Women were elected to local and regional assemblies all over Germany, and typically made up around eight per cent of the representatives in the Prussian Landtag, the most powerful regional parliament.
Stayed the same
Not all women participated
During the rest of the Weimar period women’s voting turnout was typically 5-10 per cent lower than that of men.
Politicians stereotyped women
Propaganda usually appealed to women as wives and mothers, rather than asking for their vote on the basis of improving their own lives.
Women didn’t become very influential
By 1933 women made up just 4.6 per cent of the representatives in parliament.
No women held cabinet posts during the Weimar Republic’s 14 year existence and no women sat in the upper house of parliament, the Reichsrat.
Women and men tended to vote for similar parties, although women were more likely to vote for religious parties, which tended to be more conservative. Historians disagree on how decisive women’s votes were in bringing the Nazis to power in 1933, but the party’s propaganda targeted women heavily.

Question 30

Describe the changes in the position of Women in leisure in the Weimar Republic

Answer 30

The classic image of German women in the 1920s is that of the so-called ‘New Woman’, similar to the ‘Flapper’ in 1920s USA: short haired, liberated, having fun. However, not all women’s lives changed as drastically and the leisure activities women took part in showed elements of both continuity and change.

• Greater earning power led to more independence for younger, single women.
• Women, were less interested in marriage and family and more interested in having a ‘good time’
• The behaviour of ‘new women’ was not liked by some men and women who felt traditional values were being eroded.

Question 31

Describe the cultural changes in the Weimar Republic

Answer 31

Despite the trauma of its early years, during its so-called ‘Golden Age’ Weimar experienced a flourishing of culture, in Berlin especially, that saw developments in architecture, art and the cinema. This expression of culture was greatly helped by the ending of censorship in the new republic.
Architecture and art
The most influential visual arts movement in Weimar was the Bauhaus School, founded by Walter Gropius in the town of Weimar in 1919.
Walter Gropius, 1883-1969:
Regarded as a pioneer in modern architecture and founder of the Bauhaus movement.
Bauhaus theory was that all architecture and design was an opportunity to introduce beauty and quality to all, through well-designed and industrially produced items.
He became famous for iconic door handles, and several public buildings across Weimar.
Bauhaus’ impact on German architecture was limited. This was because the movement only focused on architecture after 1927 and it was then suppressed by the Nazis in 1933. After this most of its followers fled abroad, where they developed their work further. However, Gropius did design several apartment blocks that are still in use today.
In fine art, there were two main movements that influenced German art:
Dada. The Dada movement started in Zurich during World War One. It was a protest against the traditional conventions of art and western culture, in which the war had begun. Its output included photography, sculpture, poetry, painting and collage. Artists included Marcel Duchamp and Hans Arp.
New Objectivity. The New Objectivity movement started in Germany in the aftermath of World War One. It challenged its predecessor, Expressionism, which was a more idealistic and romantic movement. Artists returned to a more realistic way of painting, reflecting the harsh reality of war. Artists included Otto Dix and George Grosz.
Experimentation in German art came to an end when the Nazis came to power in 1933. Hitler rejected modern art as morally corrupt and many of the best German artists such as Max Beckmann, Max Ernst and Paul Klee fled abroad.
Cinema
The German film and cinema industry boomed during the 1920s.
An ‘expressionist’ style became common in films. They often had unrealistic sets and exaggerated acting techniques.
Economic instability meant less money for the arts. The shortage of funding gave rise to the Kammerspielfilm movement, with atmospheric films made on small sets with low budgets.
Expressionist film-makers favoured darker storylines and themes, including horror and crime.
The most prominent film directors of the time were Fritz Lang and F.W. Murnau.
The most famous films of the period were The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari (1920), Nosferatu (1922 – based on the Dracula story), Phantom (1922), The Last Laugh (1924) and Metropolis (1927).