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Geo: ELSS > The Water Cycle > Flashcards

The Water Cycle Flashcards

1
Q

3 main ways in which water creates ideal thermal conditions on earth

A

Oceans ~ Moderate temperatures by absorbing heat, storing it and releasing it slowly. Ocean currents distribute heat evenly.

Clouds ~ Made up of tiny water droplets and ice crystals which reflect ⅕ of incoming solar radiation lowering surface temperatures.

Water vapour ~ Absorbs long-wave radiation from the earth helping to maintain average global temperatures almost 15°C higher.

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2
Q

Uses of water for people

A 
Drinking
sewerage
sweating cools humans
hydroelectric power
food manufacturing
brewing
paper and steel making
water is the medium for all chemical reactions in the body
respiration
washing
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3
Q

Uses of water for flora

A

Crops are irrigated by water
Photosynthesis
maintaining rigidity otherwise they wilt
transpiration releases water to cool plants
respiration
water transport mineral nutrients in the soil.

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4
Q

Uses of water for fauna

A 
Water makes up 65-96% of all living organisms
fur covered animals cool by evaporation.
Washing
Drinking
Respiration
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5
Q

What type of system is the EARTHs water cycle and why?

A

CLOSED SYSTEM

No water enters or leaves the earth’s atmospheric system.

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6
Q

What type of systems are SMALL SCALE water cycles and why?

A

OPEN

Water can be added by precipitation and lost at the mouth of a river or through evaporation.

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7
Q

What is the volume and residence time of the OCEAN store?

A

Volume = 1.3bn km^3

Residence time = 3600 years

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8
Q

What is the volume and residence time for the CRYSOPHERE store?

A
  • Volume = 26 million km^3
  • Residence time = 15000 years
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9
Q

What is the volume and residence time for the GROUND WATER store?

A

Volume = 15 million km^3
Residence time = up to 10000 years

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10
Q

What is the volume and residence time of the RIVER & LAKES store?

A

Volume = 180,000 km^3

Residence time = 2 weeks to 10 years

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11
Q

what is the volume and residence time for SOIL MOISTURE store?

A

Volume = 120,000 km^3
Residence time = 2-50 weeks

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12
Q

What is the volume and residence time for the ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE store?

A

Volume = 13000 km^3

Residence time = 10 days

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13
Q

What is residence time?

A

Tells us on average how long water remains in each of the stores.

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14
Q

Percentages of fresh water, surface water and biosphere.

Why is this advantageous to humans?

A

2.5% of global water is fresh, 1.3% of that is surface water, 0.2% of that is in the biosphere.

Rivers and lakes are easily accessible for human consumption and areas without relying on groundwater extraction.

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15
Q

Why is water vapour much higher at the equator than around the poles?
Is water vapour more common on land or sea?

A

This is because at the equator the sun’s rays are more concentrated, evaporating more of the oceans water.

Water vapour levels are lower on land compared to oceans as the water is evaporated off the ocean’s surface.

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16
Q

How do rainforests cause different water vapour levels?

A

Mass evapotranspiration from plants causes very humid environments with lots of water vapour.

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17
Q

How do mountains cause different water vapour levels? (Rain shadow effect)

A

rain shadow effect:
An air mass rises over mountains then cools and condenses.
Most of the moisture held by the air mass is condensated and dropped as precipitation.
On the other side of the mountains it is dryer.

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18
Q

What are the oceans stores inputs and outputs

A

INPUTS
Precipitation, surface runoff, groundwater, rivers.

OUTPUTS
Evaporation, human removal - desalination.

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19
Q

What is the lands inputs and outputs for the water cycle

A

INPUTS
Precipitation, infltration

OUTPUTS
Evaporation, transpiration, human removal - desalination, runoff, through flow & ground water flow.

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20
Q

What is the atmospheric stores inputs and outputs

A

INPUTS
Evaporation, transpiration

OUTPUTS
Precipitation, condensation

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21
Q

Effects of precipitation (mountainous, high intensity, prolonged)

A

Mountainous environments:
Likely to be snow on the ground for months meaning a lag between precipitation and runoff.
Not much infiltration due to steep relief.

Impact of high intensity precipitation:
moves very quickly overland less infiltration, lots of surface runoff and throughflow

Prolonged precipitation:
flooding due to saturated ground, increase in groundwater levels, low infiltration and throughflow rates

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22
Q

Name and describe the factors affecting transpiration

A

High temperatures & wind speeds:
increase rate.

Humidity:
decreases rate.

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23
Q

How much of the atmosphere’s moisture is transpiration responsible for?

A

10% of the atmosphere’s moisture.

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24
Q

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation and description.

A

Increase in rate is due to:
higher temps
low humidity
high wind speeds.

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25
Q

Interception definition

A

When water is intercepted and stored on branches/ leaves of plants before evaporating or falling to the ground.

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26
Q

Factors affecting the rate of interception

A

Interception storage capacity.
Wind speed.
Species.

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27
Q

Factors affecting the rate of infiltration and description

A

Soil type:
If the soil is very permeable then water infiltrates easily.
Saturation:
If soil is already saturated there will be no room for more water making it less permeable.
Note: In less dense sandy soils there is a much faster rate of infiltration.
Relief: steeper relief less infiltration

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28
Q

Give two definitions of overland flow.

A
  1. When the rate of rainfall exceeds infiltration capacity overland flow occurs.
  2. When soil becomes saturated and the water table rises to the surface.
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29
Q

Factors affecting overland flow

A

How saturated the soil is.

How much previous rainfall.

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30
Q

Factors affecting through flow and explanation

A

Soil type ~ if soil is denser the rate will be slower.
Tree roots ~ slows the water down and absorbs some of it.
Relief ~ steeper the relief faster the through flow.

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31
Q

Factors affecting groundwater flow and reasons

A

Underlying rock is permeable ~ more water can percolate eventually emerging at the surface as springs or seepages.

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32
Q

Factors affecting ablation flow and reasons

A
  • Higher temps ~ more ablation due to melting
  • Evaporation
  • Sublimation
  • Calving
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33
Q

What is a drainage basin?

A

the area drained by the river. Rain in the catchment will undergo catchment hydrology processes to end up in the main river channel.

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34
Q

How does climate affect water cycle processes?

A
  • Warmer temperatures lead to more evaporation and precipitation.
  • Saturated overland flow ~ increased surface runoff if it rained previously.
  • Rate of rain falling ~ if it’s faster than the rate of percolation or infiltration causes over land flow.
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35
Q

How does relief affect water cycle processes?

A
  • Speed of overland flow will increase if the relief is steeper.
  • Infiltration is slower on slopes with a high relief.
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36
Q

How does geology affect water cycle processes

A
  • If there are rocks underneath there will be groundwater flow.
  • Rocks that are more porous e.g. chalk will increase groundwater flow due to more percolation.
  • Compact soil reduces infiltration and increases surface runoff.
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37
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium and water balance equation

A

The balanced state of a system when its inputs and outputs are equal.
Precipitation = evapotranspiration + streamflow +/- storage.

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38
Q

Describe the process of condensation and cloud formation

A
  • Hot air rises as particles gain kinetic energy and move more making them less dense.
  • A cloud will form when a parcel of or just air reaches dew point (the temp. At which condensation occurs).
  • The air is saturated when this is reached as it’s at 100% humidity and cannot hold any more water vapour before this point it is unsaturated.
  • This occurs entirely in the troposphere which is 75% of the atmosphere’s mass and holds 99% of its water vapour.
  • As you go up through the troposphere it gets colder as the earth’s surface absorbs heat better than the atmosphere.
  • This energy warms the air above by conduction and rises up through convection.
39
Q

What is lapse rate?

A

the rate of decrease in temperature with height

40
Q

What are the two types of lapse rate?

A
  • ELR (environmental lapse rate)
  • Adiabatic lapse rate
41
Q

Describe the process for ELR (environmental lapse rate)

A
  • The rate at which the air temperature falls from ground level is ELR.
  • Short-wave radiation travels from the sun and a small percentage is conducted into the soil while most is long-wave radiation heating the atmosphere near the ground decreasing with height and altitude.
  • ELR is 6.5°C per 1000m on average!
  • This can vary with air turbulence, air surface temperature.
  • On a hot day it will be higher but when winds are strong it will be lower.
42
Q

Describe the process for Adiabatic lapse rate

A
  • This is with a parcel of self contained air meaning there is no heat exchange with the surroundings.
  • Instead it is the change in temp of the parcel due to a change in pressure.
  • As the parcel rises it is surrounded by less dense air allowing the air to expand and fill the space around it as pressure is reduced with height.
  • Air that is not saturated will rise, expand and cool at the set rate of 10°C per 1000m!
43
Q

What are the two types of Adiabatic lapse rate?

A

Dry Adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)

44
Q

Describe the process of Dry Adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

A
  • When a parcel of air is warmer than the surroundings it will continue to rise even though it has theoretically reached its dew point.
  • However it slows down as latent heat of condensation is added and turns to 5°C per 1000m - Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate.
45
Q

Describe the process of Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)

A
  • The parcel of air will now cool at 5°C per 1000m while the background ELR is cooling at 6.5°C.
  • The parcel of air is warmer than the surroundings so continues to rise and cools at an even slower rate leading to the formation of tall cumulonimbus storm clouds.
46
Q

What is the difference a stable and unstable parcel of air?

Definitions

A

Stable ~ When the parcel of air is at the same temperature as the surrounding environment, it will stop rising and eventually sink down.

Unstable ~ When a parcel of air is warmer than the surrounding environment it will continue to rise.

47
Q

Diurnal changes in the water cycle

A
  • More likely to expect rainfall in the afternoon. This is because the suns rays are stronger during the morning right up until 12.
  • This will cause water to be evaporated to then be cooled when temperatures decline and be precipitated during the afternoon.
  • Higher rates of precipitation during the middle of the day.
  • Plants transpire more during the day leading to more evapotranspiration during the day.
  • Dew point is where evaporation transfers to precipitation. This point is different depending on back ground temperatures and other factors.
48
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle; evapotranspiration

A

In the summer when there is more thermal energy there will be increased evapotranspiration taking more water into the atmosphere.

However in the winter months there will be less evapotranspiration due to less thermal energy input.

More plants in summer.

49
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle: precipitation

A
  • When there is more evapotranspiration there is more likely to be large sums of rainfall following at a cooler time when the water vapour cools and condenses into precipitation.
  • This will occur more in winter where solar energy input is low.
50
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle: interception

A
  • There will be increased interception when there is more vegetation with leaves present which will be in summer months.
  • Interception will decrease in winter when deciduous trees lose their leaves due to a lack of solar energy input.
  • However due to rainfall being less in summer there isn’t as much rain to intercept as there is in winter.
51
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle: Soil moisture store

A
  • The soil moisture store will be largest at times of low solar input.
  • This is due to increased precipitation as water vapour can cool and condense to come down as rain and saturate the soil in winter.
  • Due to plants extracting water from the ground soil moisture will decrease.
  • Ground is harder and more dried out in summer, so increased surface runoff
52
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle: lake stores

A
  • Lake stores will be higher at maximum times of precipitation with lower solar energy input.
  • This means water vapour can cool and condense coming down as rain into basins and running off into lakes once the soil is saturated or if the rainfall is fast.
  • As times of high solar energy input there will be more water being evaporated off the top layers of the lake which will reduce its store.
  • This means in winter when evaporation rates are slow as temperatures are at their lowest lakes will have a larger store.
53
Q

Seasonal changes in the water cycle: river flow

A
  • River flow increases at times of mass precipitation.
  • Precipitation will occur at cooler times when water vapour can cool and condense resulting in rainfall.
  • This rainfall will run off the drainage basins and into the river particularly when there has been a lot of previous rainfall and the ground dis saturated.
  • The more rain running into rivers the faster it will flow.
54
Q

Long term changes to the water cycle - glacial and inter glacial.
Affects of stores and flows in glacial periods

A

Increase in the ice sheet store, permafrost store.

Decrease in the ocean store, vegetation store, atmospheric store.

Decrease in evapotranspiration and precipitation.

55
Q

The impact of long term climate change on the water cycle

A

· Increased evaporation and therefore water vapour in the atmosphere

· More water vapour acts as a greenhouse gas further raising temperatures, increasing evaporation and precipitation

· Increased precipitation will lead to higher runoff and greater flood risks

· Water vapour is a source of energy in the atmosphere releasing latent heat on condensation. More events such as hurricanes and mid-latitude storms become more powerful and frequent

· Accelerated melting of glaciers and ice sheets shrinks the store of water in the cryosphere

· Accelerated melting of permafrost

56
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: URBANISATION FLOWS

A
  • The addition of hard surfaces such as concrete within a previously rural area will increase surface run off of water making it more likely to flood within an area.
  • Impermeable surfaces will decrease infiltration and percolation as water doesn’t reach the soil due to a barrier.
  • As trees need to be cut down for the construction of houses and infrastructure there is less interception meaning water will reach the ground at a faster rate again increasing the chance of flooding.

• As of drainage systems and lots of surface runoff there is a decrease in evaporation.
However man made rivers or dams will lead to increase evaporation and precipitation in other areas due to a large mass of stagnant water with a larger surface area.

57
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: URBANISATION STORES

A
  • As water runs off at a faster rate the ground water store will decrease. Water doesn’t reach the ground due to impermeable surfaces.
  • There will be a decrease in biomass as trees can access water as its run off or channeled into drains.
  • There will be a smaller soil store again due to water not reaching it.
58
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: FARMING FLOWS

A
  • Evapotranspiration decreases with clearance (if forest previously there) or increases (if arid area previously cultivate and irrigated there). May affect rainfall downwind.
  • Heavy machinery compacts soils which increases surface run-off, which increases peak flows on streams draining farmland
  • Ploughing increases evaporation and soil moisture loss
  • Furrows ploughed downslope act as drainage channels – accelerates run-off and soil erosion. Infiltration greater due to ploughing as break up of soil makes it easier
  • Hill farming takes place on steep slopes – fast surface run-off.
  • Over half of global soils are now classified as degraded as a result of intense agriculture practise.
59
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: FARMING STORES

A
  • Terraced farming increases surface storage of water and slows surface run-off
  • Crop irrigation diverts surface water from rivers and groundwater (reduces downstream flow and can reduce water table) to cultivated land.
  • Some of this is extracted by crops from soil storage and released by transpiration.
  • Most lost to evaporation and in artificial soil drainage
  • Agriculture accounts for 70% of global freshwater extraction.
  • Intense agriculture has caused global soils to lose between 40-60% of their organic carbon.
60
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: FORESTRY FLOWS

A
  • Addition of trees will increase interception reducing the amount of time taken for precipitation to reach the ground.
  • Trees will aid infiltration and percolation as roots break up the soil allowing water to pass through.
  • Increased evapotranspiration due to a larger biomass store.
61
Q

Human impacts on the natural water cycle through changes in land uses: AFFORESTATION STORES

A
  • Increase in the biomass store due to more trees being present taking up water.
  • Increase in groundwater and soil store due to water reaching the ground and no permeable surfaces distrusting this as well as roots aiding the water into the soil.
62
Q

Water extraction - brief sources and issue with ground water extraction

A
  • Aquifer source of water ~ rock that stores water easily. Usually sedimentary. In Cambridge it is chalk.
  • Groundwater is a reliable source as it doesn’t change with evaporation. However if it is extracted at a quicker rate then precipitation it will run out. Water takes a long time to reach the ground water store.
  • In some cases wells can be build as water under pressure just rises to the surfaces - this is another method of extraction.
63
Q

River Kennet - ground water extraction case study

How large is the river?
What is the catchment area?
What is the underlying geology?

A

Length = 72Km
Catchment area = 1160km2
Underlying geology = soil on top of chalk

64
Q

Kennet river case study - ground water extraction.

What are the impacts of ground water extraction on this area?

A
  • Lower flows have reduced flooding and temporary areas of standing water and wetlands on Kennet’s floodplain.
  • Lower groundwater levels caused springs and seepages to dry up and reduced incidence of saturated overland flow on the chalk
  • It leads to reduced river flows and failing groundwater levels caused by extraction. Abstraction of groundwater lead to depleted river flow down stream: summer flows reduces by 10-14% on average.
  • Abstraction reduces the the resilience of the river’s ecology to withstand natural flows, which are increasingly likely under various climate change scenarios.
  • There is reduced evaporation.
  • Ground water is depleted as it isn’t replaces as quickly as it is being taken away.
  • Less water flowing through the river sees a change in flows and erosion and depositional processes within the river.
  • There is a net lost as it isn’t taken else where it is put in other elements of the UK and not back into the river eventually.
65
Q

What is an aquifer?

A

An aquifer is a rock saturated with water.

66
Q

What is a confined aquifer?

A

A confining layer of impermeable rock separates the aquifer. Low hydraulic conductivity.

67
Q

What is an unconfined aquifer?

A

There is nothing on top of the rock layer that is confining the aquifer. It’s not sealed off.

68
Q

Give an example of a rock that doesn’t and one that does transfer water easily.
What is the energy transferred moving water down into the aquifer

A
  • shales
  • sandstone
  • GPE is transferred to pressure energy.
69
Q

Definition of syncline

A

a downfolded, basin-like geological structure

70
Q

Definition of artesian pressure

A

the hydrostatic pressure exerted on groundwater that when tapped will rise to the surface under its own pressure

71
Q

Definition of potentiometric surface

A

an imaginary surface that defines the theoretical level to which water would rise in a confined aquifer.

72
Q

What is an artesian basin?

A
  • When sedimentary rocks for a syncline basin, an aquifer confined between impermeable rock layers may contain groundwater which is under artesian pressure.
  • If this groundwater is tapped by a well or borehole, water will flow to the surface under its own pressure. This is an artesian aquifer.
  • The level to which the water will rise is determined by the height of the water table in areas of recharge on the edges of the basin and is know as the potentiometer is surface.
73
Q

Case study - London

How has London affected the artesian basin below it?

A

The Artesian basin below London has decreased in scale and will continue to do so.

This is due to more water being extracted by humans then being replaced by rainfall.
This change in amount of water has resulted in the Syncline basin slumping.

74
Q

What is the layers in geology within the artesian basin under London?
From top - bottom

A
  1. London clay
  2. Plastic clay
  3. Chalk
  4. Firestone
  5. Gault clay
75
Q

Water extraction in Europe case study general information

A
  • Approximately 10 % of Europe’s total freshwater resource is abstracted annually.
  • Overall, the region abstracts a relatively small portion of its total renewable water resources each year, at around 350 km3/year.
  • As a continent, this means that much ground water abstraction is within sustainable levels as much of that water will be recharged from infiltrating rainwater.
76
Q

Affects of major water extraction in Europe

Who are these issues problematic for

A
  • Sinking water tables,
  • Empty wells,
  • Higher pumping costs and,
  • The intrusion of saltwater from the sea which degrades the groundwater.

These issues are problematic in countries with lower precipitation totals and high potential evapotranspiration such as the Mediterranean coastlines of
Italy, Spain, Malta and Turkey.

These areas also have to cope where the demands of tourist resorts are the major cause of over-abstraction.

77
Q

Who owns water and how is it decided?
Rules and core principles
Why are the rules not in force

A

The Helsinki Rules is a set of customs about how water should be allocated when a river runs through more than one country.

Core principles:

  • Equitable utilisation
  • Substantial injury

As there is a certain vagueness of the core principles which lead to contradictions.

78
Q

Give an example of countries fighting over a water source

A

The nicer Nile is 6,650km long running through 11 African nations.

Each country needs water especially at times of drought seeing it have a high demand.

Ethiopia is currently damming the Nile reducing the flow to Sudan and Egypt who recently threatened war over the issue.

79
Q

Global management of the water cycle: FORESTRY BENEFITS

A

BENEFITS
Stabilises the regional water cycle whilst offsetting 430 million tonnes of carbon a year as well.
Supports indigenous forest communities.
Promotes ecotourism and protects biodiversity.

80
Q

Global management of the water cycle: FORESTRY REDUCING DROUGHT

A

Forests retain excess rainwater, preventing extreme run-off.

This water can be released in dry seasons helping to provide clean water and mitigate the effects.

81
Q

Global management of the water cycle: FORESTRY REDUCING FLOODING

A

Prevent soil erosion.
Increase interception reducing time taken for water to reach the ground.
Aids infiltration into soils reducing water surface store and increasing soil water store.
Takes up water themselves.

82
Q

Global management of the water cycle: FORESTRY CASE STUDIES:
BRAZIL - who helped, whats been done.
UN REDD PROGRAM - who are they, what’s their plans

A

BRAZIL
Who helped:
Received support from the UN, world bank, world wildlife fund and the German development bank to protect its forest.

What’s been done:
The Amazon Regional Protected Areas program now covers nearly 10% of the Amazon basin.

UN REDD PROGRAM
What is it:
The United Nations programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation.

Aims:
To generate necessary flows of resources to significantly reduce global emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries by protecting trees or major forests.

83
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION
What is water withdrawal?
What is water consumption?

A
  • Water taken out of a water source

- Water taken out of a source and not returned

84
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION

Which use is the highest consumer and by what amount

A

Agriculture - 70% of water withdrawals and 90% of consumption

85
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION

Methods to reduce water losses to Evaporation

A

Mulching
Zero soil
Disturb and and dripping irrigation

86
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION

Methods to reduce water losses to run-off

A

Terracing
Contour ploughing
Insertion of vegetative strips

87
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION

Methods to supply farmers with extra water resources

A

Storage ponds
Reservoirs
Recovery and recycling of waste water

88
Q

Global management of the water cycle: WATER ALLOCATION
CASE STUDY: ‘The Indus Waters Treaty’
Summary

A

The treaty allocated the Wester rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan and the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India.

At the same time, the treaty allows each country certain uses on the rivers allocated to the respective other country.

89
Q

Global management of the water cycle: DRAINAGE BASIN PLANNING

What is a drainage basin?
Why is a drainage basin a good scale to work on?
What flows and stores take place within a drainage basin(catchment hydrology)

A

A drainage basin is an area that is drained by a particular river into the sea.

Drainage basins are a good scale to manage different aspects of the water cycle on as you can balance the needs and the risks in a relatively local area.

Surface runoff, precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, percolation, groundwater stores, surface storage, interception, ocean storage, through flow, soil moisture storage.

90
Q

Global management of the water cycle: DRAINAGE BASIN PLANNING

Different methods of water cycle conservation used in drainage basin planning
CASE STUDY: EU’s WATER DIRECTIVE FRAMEWORK

A 
Reforestation programs
Conserving and restoring wetlands 
Temporary storage on floodplains 
Limiting abstraction 
Artificial recharge

The EU’s water directive framework have defined 10 river basin districts in England and Wales.
Major catchments such as the Severn, Thames and Humber.
Each have their own personal plan for the needs of the area.

91
Q

Global management of the water cycle: DRAINAGE BASIN PLANNING

CASE STUDY: The Great Fen Project.
When did it start? How many years will it take?
Scale?
Who is involved?
What will the benefits be?
A

THE GREAT FEN PROJECT
Initiated in 2011, taking place over the next 50 years

Largest restoration project in Europe

Includes the Environment Agency and Wildlife trust

  • It will create a massive green(3700 hectares) space for people
  • incorporating areas winter flood waters can be stored
  • prevents the release of huge amounts of CO2.
  • Wildlife will also be preserved.
92
Q

Factors effecting precipitation

A

Climate, physical geography (rain shadow effect), evapotranspiration, humidity levels

93
Q

Sizes of stored in order

A 
Oceans 
Icecaps
Groundwater 
Rivers and lakes 
Soil moisture 
Atmospheric moisture

Geo: ELSS (4 decks)

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