The War of Independence

Question 1

British strengths

Answer 1

Larger, richer, and more powerful.
Large, professional army.
Supported by 500,000 loyalists in the colonies.
Supported by some Native American tribes.
Recruited 18,000 Hessian troops to fight the rebels.
The Royal Navy ruled the waves, and could move troops and blockade American ports.
Had bases in Canada and the West Indies to act as staging posts.

Question 2

British weaknesses

Answer 2

The Americans were generally hostile and uncooperative, so British troops were dependent on Britain for supplies.
America was 3000 miles from Britain, meaning supplies and messages took weeks to cross the Atlantic.
The terrain was huge and difficult - British forces could not travel more than 15 miles from a navigable river or the sea.
Many troops were unavailable for combat because they were needed to protect ports to secure the army’s supply chain.
There was no political or economic centre for the British to capture.
Britain’s use of Hessians and Native Americans led to the loss of American hearts and minds

Question 3

Rebel weaknesses

Answer 3

The 13 colonies were largely separate and lacked unity.
The Continental Army had to be built from virtually nothing; it was poorly disciplined and troop numbers fluctuated.
No navy.
Colonies proved reluctant to meet Congress’ troop quotas.
Militias were poorly coordinated and organised.
Congress lacked the means to coordinate the war; for example, it lacked the funds to pay and equip the army.
Due to the blockade, rebel troops lacked food, suitable clothing, weapons and ammunition.

Question 4

Rebel strengths

Answer 4

Most Americans supported the ‘Glorious Cause’.
When there was conflict, the Continental Army was bolstered by militia support.
Militias served an important role as a kind of political police, intimidating loyalists.
Congress and the states commissioned around 2000 privateers which inflicted heavy damage on British merchant shipping.

Question 5

British strategy

Answer 5

The British strategy focused was to defeat the Continental Army and, in doing so, destroy the rebel threat and re-establish British rule. The British realised that, once the Continental Army was destroyed, some form of reconciliation would have to take place. They aimed to limit the level of destruction caused by British military action. A fine blend of firmness and conciliation was required if the British strategy was to succeed.

Question 6

Washington’s strategy

Answer 6

Washington rejected guerrilla warfare, or a defensive ‘War of Posts’, in favour of a more conventional offensive strategy. He wanted to: establish a conventional Continental Army modelled on the British army, resist British occupations, shatter British pretensions of superiority. He hoped that rebel courage, combined with a righteous cause, would compensate for inferior numbers and inexperience.

Question 7

Britain loyalist support

Answer 7

During the war 19,000 Americans enlisted in the British Army, and thousands more joined loyalist militias.

There were more loyalists in the southern and middle colonies than in New England. There were only a few areas (most notably New York) where the loyalists comprised the majority.

Loyalist problems: Disparate group, lacked the ‘Glorious Cause’ of the rebels, relied on the British for leadership and protection.

Question 8

1776 events

Answer 8

In July 1776 his army invaded New York, aided by a fleet commanded by his brother, with the aim of luring Washington and the Continental Army into battle, defeating them, and negotiating an end to the rebellion.

July 1776: Howe’s army landed on Staten Island.
August 1776: Howe’s army defeated the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island, inflicting heavy casualties. But Howe enabled Washington and his army to retreat to the mainland under the cover of fog.

September 1776: Howe met with representatives of Congress to negotiate peace, but the talks were futile as Howe was not empowered to recognise the Declaration of Independence.
Howe’s army then landed at Kips Bay, Manhattan, splitting the Continental Army in two, but he them allowed them to retreat across New Jersey.

November 1776: British forces captured Fort Washington in Maryland.

Question 9

Winter of 1776-77

Answer 9

December 1776: The Continental Army was in full retreat, with many men abandoning their posts and going home. By the time the army crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania Washington had just 3000 men. Meanwhile, British forces captured Newport, Rhode Island. Washington commented ‘I think the game is pretty near up’. However, instead of taking the next logical step and moving on to Philadelphia, Howe chose to go into winter quarters.

25 December 1776: Washington led a force of 1600 men back across the Delaware river.

26 December 1776: Washington launched a daring and successful raid on a British garrison defended by 1,400 Hessians at Trenton, taking 1000 prisoners.

3 January 1777: Washington’s forces launched another successful attack on General Cornwallis’ British forces at Princeton, capturing prisoners, arms and supplies, before again withdrawing.

At Trenton and Princeton, Washington snatched a vital morale-boosting victory from the jaws of defeat. He reluctantly accepted the ‘melancholy truth’ that he must fight a defensive ‘War of Posts’ and never risked the whole Continental Army in open battle again.

Question 10

Beginning of 1777

Answer 10

Britain had two large armies in North America. General Burgoyne’s army had secured Canada. General Howe’s army had captured New York. Burgoyne now aimed to drive down the Hudson Valley, isolating New England from the other colonies, while Howe planned to capture Philadelphia. Lord Germain instructed Howe and Burgoyne to co-operate, but in reality they were acting independently of each other.

Question 11

Howe’s campaign

Answer 11

Howe transported an army of 15,000 soldiers from New York to Chesapeake Bay by sea.

11 September: Howe defeated Continental Army at Brandywine Creek, but again hesitated to destroy Washington’s army.

21 September: Howe defeated rebel forces at Paoli.

26 September: Howe captured Philadelphia, though Congress fled to Lancaster.

4 October: Washington attempted a failed counter-attack on the British at Germantown.

November: Howe captured a series of forts along the Delaware River, while Washington and the Continental Army fled to Valley Forge.

Question 12

Burgoyne’s campaign

Answer 12

5 July: Burgoyne recaptured Fort Ticonderoga.
July: Burgoyne’s army took 3 weeks to cover 23 miles of difficult terrain, finally reaching Fort Edward. Many neutral Americans joined the rebel cause due to Burgoyne’s use of Iroquois warriors, particularly after they murdered Jane McCrea.
15-16 August: 600 of Burgoyne’s troops were killed or captured by New Hampshire militia while on a foraging mission. A relief party was also captured.
August 1777: While Burgoyne’s force drove southwards, a diversionary force of 1600 British and Iroquois commanded by the British officer St Leger moved down the St Lawrence River. While besieging Fort Stanwix, St Leger’s force was attacked by local militia. The Iroquois abandoned St Leger, forcing his remaining British force to retreat to Canada. Burgoyne decided to press on to Albany without St Leger’s support

Question 13

Gates versus the British

Answer 13

August 1777: General Gates took command of the northern rebel forces and prepared defensive positions to the north of Albany.
September 1777: News of the defeat of St Leger’s British force at Fort Stanwix had boosted rebel morale and New England militiamen rushed to join Gates’ force. By September he had 7000 men; the same number as Burgoyne.
19 September 1777: Burgoyne’s and Gates’ forces clashed at Freeman’s Farm. Burgoyne failed to defeat the rebels, and found himself in a perilous position: 200 miles from Canada, short of supplies, facing a growing and entrenched army. His only hope was based on news that General Clinton had left New York with a force of 3000 men and was pushing northwards towards Albany.
3 October 1777: After a long delay, Clinton’s force left New York. Instead of heading straight to Albany he captured a series of forts in the highlands region of New York.
9 October 1777: Burgoyne gambled that Clinton’s approach would have forced Gates to divide his army and attacked the American defences at Bemis Heights. Benedict Arnold led a heroic defence, and Burgoyne’s attack failed. The British lost 400 men; the rebels just 150.

Question 14

Saratoga

Answer 14

14 October 1777: Burgoyne was forced to retreat to Saratoga, where he found himself surrounded and heavily outnumbered by rebel troops. Clinton’s force had failed to arrive in time. On 14 October Burgoyne began negotiating with Gates. Burgoyne’s force remained prisoners of war until 1783.

Question 15

The aftermath of events in 1777

Answer 15

It was a great morale booster for the rebels. For the first time they had defeated the British in a major campaign.

Howe ordered Clinton to bring reinforcements to Pennsylvania, forcing him to abandon the NY highlands.

Howe offered his resignation (it was accepted).
Lord North: Dispatched a secret agent to Paris to explore ways of ending the war with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane; persuaded Parliament to pass the Conciliatory Propositions, agreeing to repeal the Coercive Acts and renouncing Britain’s right to tax Americans; appointed and dispatched a Peace Commission to try and negotiate an end to the war. The commissioners promised the withdrawal of British forces from America, and the establishment of direct American representation in Parliament, but Britain’s refusal to recognise American Independence meant the negotiations failed.

France agreed an alliance with the USA.

Question 16

The Treaty of Alliance 1778

Answer 16

When Lord North introduced his Conciliatory Propositions and dispatched the Peace Commission to America, Franklin (who had been dispatched to Paris with the aim of persuading the French to support the Americans) saw an opportunity; he warned the French that without their support the Americans might be tempted to accept North’s offer of reconciliation.

On 6 February 1778 France and America signed the Treaty of Alliance, to take effect when France went to war with Britain (which it did in June 1778).

Under the terms of the alliance both countries promised: to wage war until American independence was secured; not to make peace separately.

Question 17

Impact of French intervention

Answer 17

In April 1779 Spain entered the war against Britain, acting as an ally of France rather than America.

In 1780 Britain declared war on the Netherlands, on the grounds that it was aiding France and Spain.

In 1780 Russia, Sweden and Denmark formed the League of Armed Neutrality. The League refused to observe the British blockade of America. Prussia, Portugal and Austria joined in 1781. Although the league did not provide military support, it increased the status of America as a legitimate, independent nation.

After 1778 America became a sideshow for Britain; It was now more concerned about war with France. Britain was forced to consider the threat of French invasion, and the loss of Gibraltar, Minorca and possessions in Africa, India and the West Indies. Britain could no longer devote most of its military resources to North America.

The Americans did receive arms, raw materials and money from their European allies. However, these allies were more interested in pursuing their own interests rather than guaranteeing American independence. A French naval squadron arrived in American waters in 1778, but it soon departed for the Caribbean with the aim of capturing British islands. France sent less than 10,000 troops to America.

Question 18

Why did neither side secure victory between 1778-81: America

Answer 18

Winter 1777-78: The Continental Army endured a harsh winter at Valley Forge, dwindling to 3000 men. Washington faced personal criticism: some asked why Gates had succeeded (at Saratoga) where he had failed; others claimed he wanted to be a military dictator.
June 1778: The Continental Army attacked the British at Monmouth House as they travelled from Philadelphia to New York, but the attack ended in failure. Washington blamed his second-in-command, Charles Lee, who was court-martialed. The British safely returned to New York which was impregnable to America attack.
July-August 1778: 4000 French troops led by Admiral D’Estaing besieged but failed to capture Newport, Rhode Island. D’Estaing then sailed to the Caribbean with the aim of capturing British sugar islands.
Winter 1779-80: The Continental Army endured a harsh winter at Morristown, dwindling to 8000 men, and was ravaged by disease.
Early 1780: The American officer Benedict Arnold, hero of Saratoga, plotted to turn the American fortress West Point over to the British. When the plot was uncovered, he defected. Arnold’s defection was symptomatic of low morale amongst the rebels.
July 1780: A French army of 6000 troops, commanded by the Comte de Rochambeau, landed in Rhode Island but achieved little.
Early 1781: The Pennsylvania Line Regiment and New Jersey Line Regiment mutinied over lack of pay and supplies.
February 1781: Massachusetts and New Jersey troop fight each other in a riot at Princeton.

Question 19

Why did neither side secure victory between 1778-81: Britain

Answer 19

February 1778: The British evacuated Philadelphia, returned to New York, and 5000 soldiers were withdrawn. Clinton was ordered to focus on protecting Caribbean possessions.
Winter 1778-79: Clinton attempted to draw Washington into battle, but he refused to be drawn.
Native Americans: The British attempted to draw the Native Americans into the conflict against the rebels, but they proved themselves to be more of a hindrance – their savage attacks antagonised neutrals and loyalists, they fought amongst each other, and they were unreliable.

Question 20

Britain in the south 1778-80

Answer 20

The Southern strategy: The British planned to take control of the South and then advance north. There were reputed to be many loyalists in the South.
December 1778: A British force led by Colonel Campbell captured Savannah, Georgia, taking 500 American prisoners for just 3 British dead.
January 1779: Campbell captured Augusta. Georgians responded by flocking to a join a loyalist militia.
March 1779: The British defeated patriot militia at Brier Creek, Georgia, inflicting 400 casualties.
September 1779: D’Estaing’s force returned from the Caribbean and joined with General Lincoln’s southern army to besiege British-held Savannah. A bloody attack resulted in 1500 French and American casualties. D’Estaing sailed away and Lincoln retreated.
February 1780: Generals Clinton and Cornwallis transported 7600 British troops to South Carolina and besieged Lincoln’s army at Charleston.
May 1780: Lincoln surrendered. Cornwallis captured: 5000 prisoners, 343 artillery pieces, 6000 muskets.
Summer 1780: South Carolina seemed under British control: The state government had fled; and thousands pledged an oath of allegiance to Britain. Clinton returned to NY leaving Cornwallis and 4000 British troops behind.

Question 21

Britain in the south 1780-81

Answer 21

16 August 1780: General Gates led an army of 3000 men into South Carolina, clashing with Cornwallis at Camden. The Americans were defeated, suffering 1800 casualties. With Gates and his devastated army in retreat, Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina.
18 August 1780: Tarleton’s dragoons slaughtered 500 patriot militia at Fishing Creek, South Carolina.
September 1780: As he invaded North Carolina, South Carolina rebels rose up behind him
October 1780: A 1000-strong loyalist militia was destroyed by patriots at King’s Mountain, South Carolina. Cornwallis had to abandon the invasion of North Carolina and retreat to South Carolina.
Winter 1780: Georgia and the Carolinas descended into bloody chaos as loyalist and patriot militias fought. General Nathanael Greene took command of the Continental Army in the South and used hit-and-run attacks, supported by rebel militia, to great effect.
March 1781: Tarleton’s dragoons were defeated at Cowpens, South Carolina by Daniel Morgan.
April 1781: Lord Rawdon defeated Greene’s forces at Hobkirk’s Hill, but failed to bring South Carolina back under control. Patriot forces continued to harass British forces and capture British outposts.
Summer 1781: Britain remained in control of only Charleston, Savannah, and the remote Fort Ninety-Six.

Question 22

Siege of Yorktown

Answer 22

May 1781: A British force led by Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg, Virginia. He combined with British forces already stationed in Virginia (led by Benedict Arnold and General Phillips), creating a force of 8000 men.

August 1781: After a skirmish with a patriot detachment led by the Marquis de Lafayette, Cornwallis headed for the coast, building a base at Yorktown. From there he could maintain communication with Clinton in New York and, supplied by the Royal Navy, stage attacks into Virginia. Before Cornwallis could complete construction of the base a fleet of 20 French ships appeared off the coast, commanded by Admiral de Grasse.

September 1781: Washington commanded a French-American army of 16,000 men, arriving in Virginia in early September. Cornwallis found himself heavily outnumbered and trapped on the Yorktown peninsula. A British fleet attacked the French fleet on 5th September but was forced to retreat, leaving the French in control of Chesapeake Bay.

October 1781: Clinton dithered before sending a relief force from New York but it was too late. The British army at Yorktown was short of supplies and trapped at Yorktown. After a three week siege Cornwallis surrendered his force of 8000 men on 19th October.

Question 23

Aftermath of Yorktown

Answer 23

When Lord North heard the news he is said to have commented ‘Oh God, it is all over’.
Despite the defeat the overall British position in North America did not collapse. Britain still controlled New York, Charleston and Savannah, still had 30,000 troops in North America, and the French opted not to join Washington in an attack on Charleston.
Nevertheless, the British defeat at Yorktown was decisive. The Commons voted to end military operations. North resigned and was replaced by Rockingham, who ordered the evacuation of forces in the USA (Rockingham died in July 1782 and was replaced by the Earl of Shelburne).
Peace negotiations opened in Paris in September 1782. Jay and Adams negotiated a peace treaty, and Britain formally declared an end to hostilities in February 1783.

Question 24

Treaty of Paris 1783

Answer 24

The British agreed to a generous peace that they hoped would lay the foundations for an Anglo-American commercial alliance. They recognised American independence, American rights to expand west to the Mississippi, and American fishing rights off Newfoundland. The Americans promised to support Britain in the recovery of pre-war debts, and the restoration of loyalists’ property.