The Vietnam War: Escalation and Withdrawal Flashcards
1
Q
Why was Truman involved in Vietnam? (recap)
A
- tried to help France gain their occupation back and retain it
- gives $50 million in the Truman Doctrine
- Foreign Assistance Act 1948
2
Q
Why was Eisenhower involved in Vietnam? (recap)
A
- SEATO kept America involved in Vietnam
- implemented Diem as a puppet leader in South Vietnam
- refused the 1956 elections because they knew that the communists would win - started sending military advisors
3
Q
Why was Kennedy involved in Vietnam? (recap)
A
- Operation Ranch Hand 1961 - authorised the use of Agent Orange and Napalm
- Strategic Hamlets Programme 1962 - put people in ‘safe’ hamlets, removing them from their ancestral homeland
- continued to send military advisors - 11600 by 1962
4
Q
What was Johnson’s primary aim in Vietnam on gaining office?
A
- achieve a quick victory without having to escalate and commit the USA to a further fight within Vietnam
5
Q
What was OPLAN 34A?
A
-strategy based on covert action - escalating pressure - designed to force Hanoi to stop
- classified programme of raids and sabotage and propaganda and agents sent to the North to make it ‘desist from its aggressive policies’
- Johnson increased military advisors from 16300 in 1963 to 233000 and stuck to the counter insurgent policies favoured by Kennedy
6
Q
How did the USA’s Western European allies view the situation in Vietnam by 1964?
A
- did not like the approach favoured by Johnson
- French leader warned Johnson that the increased involvement could lead to a repeat of what happened to France in Vietnam
- lack of international support strengthened Johnson’s initial plan to delay escalation
- 1963-1964 = USA rejects French and south Vietnamese proposals for neutralism
7
Q
What was neutralism?
A
North Vietnamese, and USA withdraw and leave Vietnam to the Vietnamese
8
Q
What happened at the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964?
A
- three north Vietnamese patrol boats torpedoed two US Navy ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, and a US air carrier ‘USS Ticonderoga’ retaliated
9
Q
What was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?
A
- passed on 7th August 1964
- gave Johnson the power to take whatever action he felt necessary to prevent further attacks on US forces by giving him a Blank Cheque
10
Q
Why was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution a Blank Cheque?
A
Johnson was being given funding by congress to do whatever he deemed necessary in Vietnam and congress would no intervene
11
Q
What was McNamara’s concern about the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?
A
The beginning of significant US involvement in Vietnam, and was the beginning of the end for Johnson
12
Q
What was Operation Rolling Thunder?
A
A bombing campaign in North Vietnam that marked the start of the Americanisation of the Vietnam war
From 1965-1968
They pummelled North Vietnam with this bombing campaign for three years
- killed 30,000 civilian deaths
- 864,000 tonnes of American bombs
13
Q
Why was Operation Rolling Thunder started?
A
The Pleiku incident
- Vietcong attack on army barracks in Pleiku
- killed 9 people and destroyed 5 helicopters
14
Q
What were the effects of Operation Rolling Thunder on US efforts in Vietnam?
A
- escalated the involvement in Vietnam significantly
- initiated the introduction of troops into Vietnam
- Americanised the war
15
Q
Why was the situation for the US in Vietnam deteriorating by the end of 1964?
A
- China had agreed to send military supplies to North Vietnam
- USSR had established strong links with the NLF and set up a permanent mission in Moscow as well as sending military equipment
- PAVN moved down the Ho Chi Minh trail
- Vietcong had strengthen their position especially in the Mekong Delta region near Saigon
- US bombing in response to Gulf of Tonkin incident failed to bolster the South Vietnamese government increased anti-government feeling amongst both rural and urban populations
- ARVN had low morale, poor leadership, low pay, and inadequate training
16
Q
How did the North Vietnamese react to Operation Rolling Thunder?
A
- first military forces started to move down the Ho Chi Minh trail (PAVN)
- attacks on army barracks
-Vietcong strengthened their positions near Saigon - offered a four point proposal
> US must withdraw from South Vietnam
> North and South cannot enter military alliances with other countries
> South Vietnam’s internal affairs must be settled by the South Vietnamese people without external information
> peaceful reunification of Vietnam must be settled by the people of both zones - no external intervention
17
Q
What were the general strengths of the US involvement in Vietnam?
A
- General Westmoreland = commander in Vietnam (1964-1968)
- 28th July 1965 = Johnson announced an escalation of US role - he sent two marine battalions, an air squadron and 20,000 troops
- July 1965 = US had deployed 75,000 ground troops
- US economic might
- plentiful supplies of medical equipment
- 1967 = million tonnes of supplies were arriving in Vietnam per month
- helicopters = delivered men, supplies, speed for attack and recovery of troops
- Westmorelands attrition approach
18
Q
What were the strengths of US involvement in Vietnam? (bombing)
A
- B52 bombers aimed to destroy North Vietnam’s economy
- US 7th fleet controlled the seas around Vietnam - free access for air attacks
- used Agent Orange to kill foliage and expose guerrilla fighters hiding and operating in the jungle
- Agent Blue was also sprayed over the crops to deprive the enemy of food
- Americans used anti-personnel bombs or ‘pineapple bombs’ which sprayed thousands of pellets and killed indiscriminately
- Napalm - highly flammable sticky jelly that kept burning to inflict greater damage
19
Q
What were the strengths of US involvement in Vietnam? (search and destroy)
A
- US forces arrived in surprise attacks by helicopters, raided and killed suspects and left
20
Q
What were the weaknesses of US involvement in Vietnam?
A
- North Vietnamese lost resources were soon replaced through aid from China and USSR, 200,000 North Vietnamese reached draft age per year
- US attacks further alienated Vietnamese and guerrilla tactics continued anyways
- search and destroy - it was almost impossible to identify the Vietcong - many innocent civilians were killed - increasing animosity towards the US
- US and South Vietnamese troops were largely uncommitted to the struggle: frequently avoided action, AVRN troops were not well trained
- US forced were weakened by the widespread coverage on TV - increases the anti-war sentiment in the US = MLK supported the anti-war movement and gave a speech explaining why in April 1967 (undermining Johnson’s economic and social reform for a great society)
- anti-war movement had many strands - pacifists, isolationists, challengers to imperialism and interventionalism, leading to an increasingly divided society which was damaging to Johnsons war effort
21
Q
What were the strengths of North Vietnam?
A
- had support from the peasants as the guerrilla forces that didn’t negatively impact the peasants (don’t destroy land/crops, show peasants respect, support the peasants, always keep your word)
- had an element of cooperation through terror - were prepared to use violence against peasants who challenged them
- used sophisticated guerrilla tactics to undermine the resolve and morale of the US troops
- guerrilla tactics
- Ho Chi Minh trail
- support from China and the USSR
22
Q
Why was guerrilla tactics a strength of North Vietnam?
A
- comple tunnels too hide troop
- booby traps deployed into dense forests
> tripwires set off grenades and mines
> small groups of troops who ambushed the US forces in the jungles
23
Q
Why was the Ho Chi Minh trail a strength of the North Vietnamese?
A
- it was the primary supply route and was vital to the tactics deployed by the North
> passed through Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam jungle
> crucial supply line for men and equipment
> never fully disabled as it was hard to detect
24
Q
Why was support from the USSR and China a strength of North Vietnam?
A
- they were strengthened by their complete fundamental equipment to ideology and nationalism + the support they got from China and the USSR
- China supplied 80,000 guns which increased to 140,000 by 1989
- USSR supplied surface to air missiles, MiG21 jets and artillery
25
What were the weaknesses of North Vietnam?
- degrees of dependency upon both China and the USSR
- North Vietnam’s economy could not sustain a prolonged war, even based on guerrilla tactics
- no guaranteed support amongst many South Vietnamese peasants - they failed to rise up during the Tet Offensive
26
How much had American technology develop during the Vietnam war?
- created formidable new fighting weapons
- ‘mother bombs’ exploded in mid air to release 350-600 baby bombs, which then went on to explode upon impact to release 1000’s of metal pellets
- the metal pellets were changed to fibreglass to make it harder and more painful to remove = undetectable on x-ray
- heat sensitive and urine sniffing devices were used to pinpoint and destroy an enemy - often mistook a child or water buffalo
27
What was the Vietcong?
Name used by president Diem to describe the National Liberation Front (NLF) members
28
What was the ARVN?
Army of the Republic of Vietnam
South Vietnamese army
29
What are guerrilla tactics?
Form of unconventional warfare utilised by the Vietcong, small groups using ‘undercover’ methods to attack a stronger enemy (USA)
Traps and ambush tactics
30
What was Operation Ranch Hand?
US operation designed to expose the roads and trails used by the Vietcong. US sprayed an estimated 19 million gallons of defoliating herbicides over Vietnam and Laos between 1962-1971
31
What was the Ho Chi Minh trail?
Net of trails and roads that ran from North to South Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia (provided food, weapons, personnel)
32
What was Agent Orange?
A chemical that contains dioxin, a toxic defoliant that destroys any foliage - also associated with many deformities in children
33
What is Naplam?
A highly flammable sticky jelly used in incendiary bombs and flame throwers - constists of petrol thickened with special soaps
34
What is Agent Blue?
A herbicide used by the US to destroy plant life - particularly in rice paddies (main source of food for Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army)
35
What did it mean to ‘grab the enemy by the belt buckle’?
To negotiate the US air advantage, the Vietcong aimed to engage the Americans at such close quarters that the troops could not call in fire support
36
What were booby traps?
Apparently harmless object designed to detonate when someone touches it = used by the Vietcong to attack US soldiers
37
What was the winning ‘hearts and minds’ strategy?
Using emotional and intellectual appeals to sway the Vietcong supporters into supporting the USA
38
What was attrition?
Killing communist forces faster than they could replace them
39
What was search and destroy?
A strategy to insert ground forces into hostile territory, search out the enemy territories, destroy them, and then immediately withdraw
40
What were the tunnels?
Built beneath the dense Vietnamese jungle to connect hamlets and communes - used to transport fighter and supplies
US tried to find and destroy these
Cu Chi tunnels were based around Saigon
41
When was the Tet Offensive?
January—February 1968
During a traditional holiday period linked to Tet religious celebrations
42
What was the Tet Offensive?
- Vietcong launched a series of simultaneous military attacs against US targets in over 100 towns and cites in South Vietnam
- planned to stimulate a mass uprising against the USA
- US embassy in Saigon was captured - event were televised by television crews
- the most ferocious fighting was around Hue - no rapid US victory
- 31st January was when communist troops entered the city and it wasn’t until 24th February that the South Vietnamese flag could fly again
43
What did the Tet Offensive show about the US approach to Vietnam?
- approach was wrong - how is USA supposed to win when the enemy could strike with such range
- by Tet, the USA had 550,000 ground forces in Vietnam and with no alternative strategy under Johnson, the public had viewed the war as lost already
44
What effect did the Tet Offensive have on US public opinion of the war in Vietnam?
- after Walter Cronkite said the Tet Offensive had shown that the war had reached stalemate, the views of many Americans changed = made them think the US could not win the war
- many people were also seeing the atrocities the USA were committing in Vietnam and were becoming disillusioned with the war
- seeing cities overrun by the Vietcong who were supposed to be losing
45
Why was the Vietnam war described as the ‘Living Room War’?
- first war to be televised after the media boom in the 1960’s sp the realities of the war were finally being televised directly into peoples living rooms - they were seeing the horrors of the war on both sides (opioid crisis for USA, Agent Orange and Napalm use + My Lai massacre for Vietnamese)
- many US citizens were becoming anti-war as thy sae how horrific it was
46
Why was the October 1967 anti-war protest in Washington DC so important?
- showed how significant the anti-war movement had become - 100,000 had participles and civil rights leader MLK expressed his disapproval of US involvement
- demonstrators had a substantial effect on the way in which candidates campaigned - Nixon (republican) vs Humphrey (democrat VP)
47
What types of anti war protests were there?
- self immolation
> March 1965 = Alice Herz set fire to herself at 82 in Detroit
> November 1965 = Norman Morrison (Quaker) burnt himself to death in front of McNamara’s pentagon office
- Vietnam Veterans Against the War was formed in 1967
- Dow chemical protests
> since Dow was the only military supplier of Naplam, there were protests against Dow recruiters on university campuses = 1967 February and October at University of Wisconsin
48
What happened to Robert Kennedy 1968?
He was assassinated (June) whilst on the presidential campaign trail trying to win the democratic nomination after Johnson resigned
49
What were Nixon’s key policies in Vietnam?
May 1968= preliminary peace talks in Paris
March 1969= Operation Menu activated in Cambodia
July 1969= Nixon Doctrine announced
November 1969= vietnamisation is announced to the US public
April 1970= ARVN and US ground forces invade Cambodia
February 1971= Nixon backs the ARVN invasion of Laos
June 1972= lowest number of US troops in Vietnam
50
What was Nixon’s aim with regards to the Vietnam war when he took office in January 1969?
- he wanted to quickly stop the war, but he couldn’t end it without a tangible success
- h wanted ‘peace with honour’ above all - ensure South Vietnam remained an independent non-communist country
51
What was vietnamisation?
The withdraw US forces and replace them with South Vietnamese forces
Nixon waned to negate the growing domestic opposition to the war and strengthen his position as president
Needed to strengthen the US military machine and secure against North Vietnam
Wanted to show the US was willing to withdraw and to convince North Vietnam to negotiate
US bombed and invaded Cambodia and Laos to pressurise North Vietnam into compromise
52
What was the ‘silent majority’?
Nixon used this term to refer to Americanswho didn’t join in the anti-war demonstrations
He believed the anti war sentiment was being pushed by a vocal minority whist the silent majority continued to support the US approach to war and duty to protect freedom against communism
53
What were the troop withdrawal statistics?
US troops:
> June 1969 = 543,000
> January 1972 = 156,800
> June 1972 = 47,000
ARVN:
Nixon poured resources into the south Vietnamese troops
> service conditions modernised
> benefits increased
> career structures improved
> equipment modernised
> increased from 82,000 in 1968 to 1 million by 1970
> increase in military vehicles, helicopters, planes
54
What was the impact of Vietnamisation?
- appeared to transform ARVN into an effective, secure fighting force
- ARVN resisted North Vietnamese spring offensive of 1972, only suffering 8,000 casualties (NV lost 40,000)
- supported by US bombing from May to October = Operation Linebacker (150,000 tonnes of bombs dropped on NV and NLF targets in SV)
55
What were the issues with Vietnamisation?
- high casualty rates
- corruption and favouritism (officers selected based on loyalty to the Theiu regime)
- heavily reliant on US support
- high desertion rate
56
Why did Nixon instigate a military offensive into Cambodia in marc 1969?
- sever supplies on Ho Chi Minh trail + pressurise the NV unto agreeing to an acceptable peace settlement forSV to retain confidence and commitment of SV in light of Vietnamisation
- overthrow of Prince of Cambodia (Sihanouk) by pro-US General Leon Nol - NV backed the communist movement Khmer Rouge - Nixon feared Khmer Rouge, NV and VC could echoes allies and undermine Vietnamisation and stop US from progressing
- a show of force in Cambodia would prove the US was still committed to South Vietnam and strengthen the US whilst weakening the NV negotiating position
57
What were the positive consequences of extending the war into Cambodia?
- large areas of jungle destroyed - made it difficult for the VC to operate in Cambodia
- large amounts of VC supplies and equipment were captured or destroyed
- undermined the possibility of a major North Vietnamese offensive into South Vietnam
58
What were the negative consequences of extending the war into Cambodia?
- no US strategic gains
- NV moved deeper into Cambodia and strengthened support for the Khmer Rouge - US now had to also safeguard Lon Nol’s regime against Pol Pot
- increased US commitment to the region whilst Nixon was trying to withdraw
- increased domestic opposition to the war= ‘deeper commitment in SE-Asia’
- May 1970 = widespread student protests at Kent State University in Ohio = 4 students killed, leading to more protests
- June 1970 = gov voted to repeal Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - president no longer had unchecked control of the war
59
Why did Nixon support an ARVN invasion of Laos?
- feared communist advance in 1972 (election year)
- hoped for another blow to Ho Chi Minh trail
- congress banned US ground troops in Cambodia and Laos so plan was to support the SV with air support
60
What happened in February 1971?
Operation Lam Son
719 air support for south Vietnamese troops
Inadequate force of 30,000 ARVN troops attacked Laos
Superior NV forces resisted and forced the ARVN to withdraw
61
Why did Nixon want to improve US-Sino relations?
- China was a developing nuclear power and a military and strategic force in SE-Asia
- to capitalise on Sino-Soviet split = China was a communist power independent of the USSR
62
When did Kissinger visit Beijing?
July 1971
1972
Arranged a Nixon visit, but failed to persuade China to pressurise NV into peace process
63
How did Kissinger advance the Vietnam peace talks after reaching a stalemate in October 1968?
- February 1970 = met secretly with Le Duc Tho (NV special advisor)
> Le Duc Tho insisted that any settlement made must be both military and political and insisted on replacing Theiu and the Saigon regime with a coalition with the VC
> Kissinger and Nixon saw this as unrealistic as it would be seen as the US abandoning and betraying the SV
May 1971= talks resumed but were stalled by November
October 1972= NV moderated their position on Theiu’s removal of power
64
How did Kissinger use the ‘China card’ to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table?
Wanted to ‘bring China in from the cold’ and utilise the Sino-Soviet split to force a better relationship with China with a goal of getting China to pressurise the NV into agreeing with the peace negotiations
65
What were the terms of the Paris Peace Agreement 1973?
- ceasefire would begin January 1973
- each side would keep areas they controlled at the beginning of the ceasefire
- within 60 days, the US would withdraw and all prisoners of war would be exchanged
- commission would be set up to implement free elections and the ability of South Vietnam to determine its own future
- free elections and there would be a consideration of a reunified Vietnam
66
How did North Vietnam win the war?
- US military forces withdrew by the end of March 1973
- the intensified guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam - ARVN were unable to cope with it despite the US promised of $1b in aid
- Watergate forced Nixon to resign August 1974
- December 1974 = NV assault and congress rejects the SV requests for aid
- 21st April 1975 = Theiu resigned and fled the country
- 30th April 1975 = South Vietnamese surrender to the North
67
What were some of the costs of the Vietnam war for the USA?
- strong anti-war culture divided generations
- 68,000 Americans died and 2.7 million served (9% of population)
- veterans felt ostracised and were attacked by anti-war protesters + some had PTSD from guerrilla fighting
- debates about ‘draft-dodgers’ - 100,000 men left the US to avoid being drafted
- $167 billion was spent on the war, taking funds away from Johnson’s ‘great society’ reforms impacting American communities
- suggests containment failed - loss of Vietnam led to domino effect fears
- without Indochina, SEATO lost relevance and was disbanded 1976
- Nixon promised reparations = never materialised
- War Powers Act 1973
68
What was the War Powers Act 1973?
Gave congress the right to declare war and prevented the president from acting without congressional consequences
69
What were the costs of the Vietnam war for Vietnam?
- casualties range from 1.3-9 million during all hostilities including 250,000 civilians
- 643,000 tonnes of bombs dropped on North
- 700,000 tonnes dropped on South = devastated the infrastructure and agriculture
- Vietnam continued to face US hostility post 1975 - Ford attempted to isolate Vietnam through trade embargo’s and opposing its entry into the UN
- Operation Ranch Hand decimated 2.4 hectares of South Vietnamese land
- Montagnard people lost 1/5th of their population, 85% had to be resettled
- many southerners were forced to submit to ‘reeducation’ camps to ensure they were communist now
- southern farmers lost their livelihoods after collectivisation of agriculture
- 1.5 million people left the country - 2/3rd went to US (involuntary migration)
70
What were the consequences of the invasion of Cambodia?
- Lon Nol encouraged infighting due to fears of being overthrown
- Khmer Rouge intensified their fighting - isolated Phnom Penh and attacked the capital in 1975
- April 1975 = US forces evacuated, Pol Pot took power
- ideological cleansing, cities were emptied, enforced agricultural society
- 1m Cambodians were killed during revolution and 700,000 were killed due to war
- 50% of population became refugees
