The State

Question 1

what do states have?

Answer 1

states have sovereignty, it is the defining characteristic of a state

sovereignty means that states have absolute and ultimate power and authority over their citizens

the state is a territorially-based political unit, defined as having four key features….
• stable population
• effective government
• legally defined territory
• the ability to enter into relations with other states, which requires recognition by other states

Question 2

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Answer 2

the legal basis for the modern state was established by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648

brought a conclusion to the brutal Thirty Years War in Europe and is seen as the starting point of both modern international law and international politics

established three key principles…
• the principle of sovereignty of states
• the principle of legal equality between states
• the principle of non-intervention by one state in the internal affairs of another state

established the belief that nations have a right to rule themselves, as well as a right to independence and democratic rule

the ‘Westphalian system’ is used to describe a state centric view of the world, which sees states as central to international relations — this view is closely aligned with realism

Question 3

define nation state

Answer 3

an autonomous political community bound together by shared citizenship and nationality

based upon a recognisable culture, which is manifested through elements such as a common ancestry and language

Question 4

5 characteristics of a nation

Answer 4

self identifying community that does not necessarily have sovereignty

not necessarily recognised by the international community

not necessarily possessing a state, like the Kurds

defined territory is not needed

nations can live in more than one state

Question 5

5 characteristics of a state

Answer 5

political entity with sovereignty

recognised by the international community

can contain more than one nation or community — most states are culturally and ethnically diverse, so do not represent a single nation (e.g. Iraq is so diverse that it can be seen as a state without a nation, and the UK contains several nations)

requires defined territory

cannot cross the boundaries into other states

Question 6

what is a nation?

Answer 6

a group of people who self identify as belonging to the same group or community, with a strong sense of unity

a cultural entity, whereas a state is a political entity

Question 7

what do individuals in a nation have in common?

Answer 7

the individuals in a nation may have certain characteristics in common

these may include...
• territory 
• language
• ethnicity
• history
• customs and traditions 
• religion

although none of these characteristics are absolutely essential — for a group to be considered a nation they only need to share some of these characteristics

for example, members of a nation may not share the same religion or even the same language but they still may see themselves as belonging to the same nation

Question 8

a nation can have shared or common….

Answer 8

• territory
• political ideas and values
• customs and traditions
• ethnicity
• language
• folklore
• religion
• culture

Question 9

how are nations easy to identify?

Answer 9

in some respects, nations are easy to identify

it’s easy to point to the French, the Germans to the Italians as single nations as they meet some of the criteria needed to be a nation

they all have a certain territory, have a common language, share a history, have the same traditions and so on

however, there are Bretons in France, Bavarians in Germany and South Tyroleans in Italy, who all claim to be a nation in their own right and could convincingly make a claim using the same criteria

Question 10

how recent is the concept of a nation?

Answer 10

the concept of a nation is a fairly recent one

for centuries, people’s loyalties were local — e.g. to their city, church or local prince — rather than being tied to any larger community

however, for the last 2 centuries, the idea of loyalty to and identification with a nation has grown in significance and by the 20th century it was widespread

Question 11

why is nationhood important?

Answer 11

nationhood is important as it is the idea behind one of the most powerful forces in global politics: nationalism

nationalism is a strong belief in one’s own country

it has been the force behind some of the greatest changes and conflicts in recent world history

it can be a force for good, uniting people and leading them to freedom from the tyranny of others

it can also be a force for bad, leading countries and people to war and conflict

nationalism supports the idea that the proper basis for the state is the nation — this is best expressed through the ideal of national self-determination (to each nation, a state)

Question 12

what is a state?

Answer 12

a specific form of political entity that meets 4 criteria….

• a functioning and effective government
• a defined territory
• recognition by other nation states
• a permanent population

a state must have all of these in order to be considered a state, unlike a nation which only needs some of its characteristics

Question 13

process and development of states throughout history

Answer 13

the process of national self determination has happened in two stages….

• 19th century — the transformation of Europe into nation states (e.g. the Unification of Germany in 1871 as well as Italy in 1870)
• 20th century — the collapse of the British Empire in Africa and the Ottoman Empire in Asia after WW1, and the collapse of the USSR in 1991, to be replaced by nationstates

this has led to most modern states being seen as nation states, which have authority and legitimacy as they embody and represent the nation

Question 14

a defined territory

Answer 14

a state can only have sovereignty or absolute and unlimited power over somewhere

much of the political conflict in the world is based on disagreements between states as to who owns which territory

examples of conflict based on disagreements between states and competing claims to territory….

• dispute between the UK and Argentina over the Falkland Islands, which led to a war under Margaret Thatcher
• the Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan which has been going on since 1947
• the disagreements and rising tensions between China and its neighbours over islands and sea rights in the South China Sea

this criterion raises questions over the future of low lying Pacific island states, such as Vanuatu, if they succumb to rising sea levels — but as it stands, physical land is essential for statehood

Question 15

a permanent population

Answer 15

for a state to exist, it must have people permanently living in that territory

so if there are no people, then there is no state

for example, Antarctica does not have a permanent population so does not meet the criterion for statehood and cannot be considered a state

Question 16

a functioning and effective government

Answer 16

some territories that meet the other criteria needed to be considered a state are not in a position to enforce the law or exercise their sovereignty over the territory and its population

these territories are more accurately described as failed states

an example of a failed state is Syria, which has been engulfed in civil war since 2011

President Bashar al-Assad’s government has lost control over much of Syria to rebel groups as well as Daesh (ISIS)

where it does not control the territory, it cannot be said to be sovereign and is not an effective state, perhaps lacking the criteria needed for statehood

Question 17

recognition by other nation states

Answer 17

this is perhaps the most significant criterion for a state

because while a state-like entity may have a territory, permanent population and functioning administration, unless it is seen by other states as also being a state, it cannot effectively enter into relations with them or exercise its sovereignty in the international system (e.g. through UN membership or having an embassy)

Kosovo is a state like entity that is recognised by many of the world’s state, but it is not sufficiently recognised to be a member of the UN

Palestine is also not formally recognised by the UN as its own state, but there is growing international pressure for it to be recognised as a state in its own right and gain UN membership

the most recent state to be recognised as such is South Sudan, which joined the UN in 2011

Question 18

what is a nation state?

Answer 18

the prime political entity of the modern era and the Westphalian system

it is essentially a nation with its own state, bringing together the political entity of the state and the cultural entity of a nation

but this can be further developed, the nation state is also…

• a state that represents the political wishes of a nation, and thus gains authority and legitimacy
• a self-governing state
• a state that is based on the principles of self-determination

the nation state is now the dominant model and the UN recognises 193 states in the world which are best described as nation states

Question 19

x3 issues with nationhood and statehood

Answer 19

nations without a state

national claims that cross borders

states not recognised by other states

Question 20

nations without a state: SCOTLAND

example of a nation exercising their right to decide whether to become an independent state

Answer 20

there are ongoing claims for nations that do not have their own state

Scotland held an independence referendum in 2014 where the people of Scotland exercised their right to decide whether they wanted to secede from the UK and become an independent state in their own right

on this occasion, they voted to remain in the UK

but the event still made it clear that the Scots have a right to determine their own future and any vote by the Scottish people to leave the UK would be considered legitimate

Question 21

nations without a state: BASQUE COUNTRY + CATALONIA

example of how independence for some nations is complicated and difficult to achieve

Answer 21

the issue of independence is not so clear for the Basque people and the Catalonians of Spain

whereas the UK government gave its blessing to a Scottish independence referendum and would honour the alternative outcome, the Spanish government has not recognised the right of the Basque or Catalonian people to determine their own future outside of Spain

the secessionist movements of these parts of Spain play on the nationalist sentiment of their people, drawing on the shared and distinct history, traditions, language and folklore of these areas to try to convince the people to push for an independent and sovereign nation of Catalonia and the Basque Country

these kind of secessionist movements have at times turned to violence — notably with the ETA group in the Basque Country of northern Spain “fighting for their freedom”, which is a stance that many others might call terrorism

Question 22

nations without a state: THE KURDS

example of the largest nation without a state of its own

Answer 22

the largest nation in the world that is acknowledged as not having its own state is the Kurdish people of Syria, Turkey and Iraq

there are around 30 million Kurds, mostly Sunni Muslims, who share a unique language and live in an area that spans Iraq, Turkey, Iran and Syria, making them the world’s largest stateless nation

in the early 20th century, many Kurds began to consider the creation of a homeland referred to as Kurdistan — after WW1 and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, victorious Western allies made provisions for a Kurdish state in the 1920 Treaty of Sevres

however, in 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne set the boundaries of modern Turkey but made no provision for a Kurdish state and left the Kurds with minority status in their respective countries

over the next 80 years, any move by the Kurds to set up an independent state was brutally quashed

the Kurds feel that they are a persecuted minority and some have taken up violence against the Turkish state to push for Kurdish self-determination

in Syria, the Kurds have been fighting against Daesh (ISIS) and have achieved some sort of autonomy in the country

in Iraq, they have had similar autonomy for a number of years and have effectively or de facto had their own country or state

however, the Kurds face big problems in trying to achieve an independent, sovereign Kurdistan because the territory they claim as their own already belongs to sovereign states that are highly unlikely to give it up

furthermore, other states are unwilling to allow a precedent whereby parts of countries can be broken away from sovereign states without their permission

Question 23

national claims that cross borders

Answer 23

a further difficulty is that the territorial claims of a nation do not always coincide with the borders of states

many states are in dispute with the neighbours over the sovereignty or ownership of territory

which is only complicated further by competing historical and traditional claims of the people who live in that territory

one of the ideas behind the nation is attachment to territory or land so conflicts often arise when two or more nations claim the same land

Question 24

national claims that cross borders: NORTHERN IRELAND

example of nations claiming the same territory in the UK

Answer 24

the UK has its own example of this problem of more than one nation claiming the same territory

two opposing communities or nations claim the territory of Northern Ireland as their own

the Unionist community wants Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK while the Nationalist community believes Northern Ireland should be part of the Republic of Ireland

both sides have valid historical claims to the land, both can claim a certain legitimacy and both believe they are right

this has led to significant conflict throughout the 20th century known as The Troubles, which carried on until the Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998 to establish peace between the two communities

although even with this agreement in place, there is still significant tension in the region and a delicate balance between the opposing sides

Question 25

national claims that cross borders: PALESTINE + ISRAEL

example of nations claiming the same territory in the Middle East

Answer 25

but it is not just the Nationalists and Unionists of Northern Ireland who have competing claims to the same territory

this type of dispute can be seen in the Middle East with Israeli and Palestinian claims to the same territory resulting in decades of conflict that has shown no significant signs of slowing down

Question 26

national claims that cross borders: UKRAINE AND RUSSIA

example of recent conflict involving nations claiming the same territory

Answer 26

the recent conflict in Ukraine is founded on the same problem

ethnic Russians who identify with the Russian nation and state are living in the internationally recognised state of Ukraine

the Russian separatists want closer ties with Russia but the Ukrainians believe their state should be sovereign and independent of Russia

Question 27

states not recognised by other states

Answer 27

there are several examples of state-like entities that are not recognised by other states, so find it difficult to operate in the international system

pressing examples of states not recognised by other states are Kosovo, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria

the idea of a world of nation states, where states represent the nation, is perhaps more fiction and fact as many nations are struggling to gain recognition as nation states

Question 28

states not recognised by other states: MICRONATIONS

Answer 28

micronations are tiny areas of land that claim they are independent and sovereign states but are not recognised as such

this means that things such as their issuing of passports and currency has no legal or practical value

for example, Sealand is a micronation off the coast of Essex in England

it claims to be a state in its own right but in all practical terms it does not exist

Question 29

states not recognised by other states: TRNC

Answer 29

the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)

Turkey invaded and occupied the northern half of the island of Cyprus in 1974, with the authorities there declaring it to be the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1975

the TRNC exists in the sense that you can live and go on holiday there, but in the international system it does not exist

the TRNC declared independence in 1983 but the only country in the world to recognise it as an independent sovereign state is Turkey

a United Nations proposal to unify the two Cypriot states was accepted by the TRNC but rejected in a referendum by the Greek Cypriot community, further attempts at reunification have thus far been unsuccessful

the fact that others states do not recognise it has numerous ramifications….

• no country will allow travel into its territory on a TRNC passport
• no country will recognise the government of TRNC
• the TRNC is not a member of the UN or any other international body
• there are no international flights to the TRNC
• international telephone calls cannot be made to the TRNC, except via Turkey
• the TRNC does not have its own internet domain letters like .uk or .de
• the TRNC cannot participate in the Olympics or the FIFA World Cup

Question 30

states not recognised by other states: TRANSNISTRIA

Answer 30

Transnistria is part of Moldova and since 1990, it is a self declared and more less functioning independent state

however, it is not internationally recognised by any other sovereign state

it has a majority Slavic population, as opposed to the majority Moldovan that Moldova has, making it distinct from Moldova

it is essentially a de facto state as it has its own police, army and currency as well as functions outside of the jurisdiction of Moldova

but there is no sign of it becoming an internationally recognised country anytime soon

Question 31

states not recognised by other states: SOMALILAND

Answer 31

Somaliland is a former British protectorate in East Africa which was independent for four days in 1960, before joining up with Italian Somalia

it remained part of Somalia until the government collapsed in 1999 and then Somaliland unilaterally declared independence

Dr Rebecca Richards explains that “There is a remarkably strong government… It’s had a series of democratic elections. It is peaceful. It is stable. There is an incredible amount of economic development taking place. It’s pretty much everything that you would expect to see in a state”

however, Somaliland is not recognised by any other state

this makes life hard for people living there because while there is limited access to some types of developmental and humanitarian assistance, much of this, especially aid from the UN, goes through Somalia

access to international markets is difficult without legal protections and as Somaliland’s currency is not recognised outside its borders, it has no international value

Question 32

what is sovereignty?

Answer 32

sovereignty means absolute power and authority

before the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, states did not have sovereignty or absolute and unlimited power

within a state, the state has absolute power over its citizens and everyone who resides within its jurisdiction

Question 33

the Westphalian state system

Answer 33

the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years War and developed the principle of state sovereignty

it ended the Holy Roman Emperor’s claim to possess sovereign authority over virtually independent German states

this meant that each individual state would be sovereign over its own internal affairs and no other state or supposedly superior body could intervene within its borders

Westphalia also defined the theory of the sovereign equality of states — no state has the legal right to intervene in the sovereign affairs of another state AND all states, whatever the size, possess the same legal right to independence

in 1918, Woodrow Wilson established the principle that nation state sovereignty should be founded upon the right of self-determination, based on a shared ethnic heritage

this led to the creation of new states such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland after WW1

Question 34

fundamental ideas about sovereignty

Answer 34

the fundamental characteristic of the nationstate is sovereignty

national sovereignty implies that the state has absolute and unlimited power both within its territory (internal sovereignty) and in global affairs (external sovereignty)

the Montevideo Convention (1933) determined that the sovereign state must possess a defined territory, a permanent population, a viable government and a capacity to enter into diplomatic relations with other states

Question 35

internal sovereignty

Answer 35

the location of sovereignty within a state

the power of a body within the state to make decisions that are binding on individuals and groups in the territory — e.g. parliament and parliamentary sovereignty

the ability to maintain order

Max Weber describes internal sovereignty as a monopoly over the use of legitimate violence within the state (e.g. through the police or the army)

Joseph Schumpeter added to this and said that sovereignty also involves a monopoly over the ability to raise taxes within the state

Question 36

external sovereignty

Answer 36

there is no legal or political authority above the state — link to realism, which believes that states are the most important actors in global politics

the right of autonomy to make decisions within the territory of the state free from external interference

all states are equally sovereign in their relations with each other, the least powerful state is a sovereign as the most powerful state and so its territorial integrity is as legally valid

Article 2 of Chapter 1 of the UN Charter notes that: “the organisation is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members”

governments can make decisions about their own territories without being interfered with by other states — no state can tell another state how to behave

no state or legal body has the right to intervene in the sovereign affairs of any nation state

Question 37

characteristics of national sovereignty

Answer 37

the law applies to everyone and there is no opting out — should anyone break the law of the state they can be arrested, put on trial in court, sentenced to prison and in some states eventually executed

Max Weber defined the state as having a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory and the state will seek to legitimise this monopoly

Question 38

what has sovereignty led to?

Answer 38

sovereignty has provided the basis for international law

for instance, in the United Nations General Assembly, each nationstate has one vote which reinforces the sovereign equality of states

international law also guarantees the territorial boundaries and autonomy of nation states

Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter says that all member states should “respect the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of other states” and Article 7 says that the UN cannot intervene in the domestic jurisdiction of any state

Question 39

what is sovereignty often the basis for?

Answer 39

sovereignty is also the basis for conflict

for example, the desire for the Palestinians to establish a nationstate in the territory claimed by Israel

Question 40

what is state sovereignty under attack from?

Answer 40

the traditional concept of state sovereignty and the billiard ball model have come under attack from…

• globalisation and growing levels of interdependence which have led to state borders becoming increasingly porous and have caused a decline in sovereignty — states can no longer act as discrete entities and must consider other states, borders have become increasingly meaningless
• the increasing role of nonstate actors such as TNCs and NGOs, which appear to work outside of the traditional limits of sovereignty
• the growing role of international institutions, especially the move from intergovernmentalism to supranationalism and regionalism, which undermines sovereignty (e.g. the debate surrounding the EU taking the UK’s sovereignty)
• the growing tension between national sovereignty and human rights, leading to the idea that states have the right to intervene in other states to protect those rights, which undermines sovereignty (e.g. the Iraq War)

Question 41

in what ways is sovereignty difficult to define?

Answer 41

sovereignty may seem easy to define but sovereignty in theory is very different to sovereignty in practice

it is a widely debated concept — for example, when a state gives away a small amount of sovereignty, does this mean that they no longer possess absolute and ultimate authority?

has come more into question due to globalisation, because if states are affected by actions and events in other states in, they arguably lose the capacity in practice to control events in their own country and act as independent units

Question 42

sovereignty in the UK

Answer 42

at a basic level, sovereignty within the state or internal sovereignty is relatively straightforward — it is easy to identify the location of sovereignty in the UK constitution

parliament is the sovereign body of the UK and there is no higher body in parliament — this parliamentary sovereignty is the most fundamental principle in the UK constitution

there is no law that parliament cannot pass and only parliament can overturn an act passed by parliament

however, as a democracy, it can also be argued that the people are sovereign and that there is popular sovereignty

the consequences of the UK’s EU referendum suggest that popular sovereignty weighs more than legislative sovereignty since Parliament was unprepared to ignore the vote

the UK’s withdrawal from the EU will further change the location of sovereignty within the UK

in certain circumstances, the prime minister exercises sovereignty on behalf of the monarch through the use of the royal prerogative

the devolved Scottish and Welsh assemblies may be in the process of achieving de facto sovereignty in their domestic affairs

the location of sovereignty within the state may change — in 2017, the Supreme Court determined that parliament, not the government, had the sovereign authority to trigger Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty to begin the process of taking the UK out of the EU

Question 43

sovereignty in the USA

Answer 43

in the USA, there are complications in terms of sovereignty

the preamble to the US constitution declares “We the people…”, indicating that there is popular sovereignty and that this is upheld by the constitution

however, the US is also a federal country, Meaning that there are at least two or more autonomous over bodies in the USA, in fact 50 individual states share sovereignty with the federal government

furthermore, within the branches of government there is a system of checks and balances, meaning that no one institution of government is sovereign — unlike in the UK, where parliament is sovereign

Question 44

realist view on sovereignty: the billiard ball model

Answer 44

realism sees states as billiard balls, with sovereignty being their key property and the key aim of states being maximum relative power

when the billiard balls collide, sovereignty allows the state to survive

recognises that states have different levels of power, so the billiard balls can be different sizes and this leads global politics to focus on the great powers

the billiard ball model treats all states as equal and does not distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ states — e.g. the motives of the USA and USSR during the Cold War were the same and were not driven by domestic political or economic factors

Question 45

8 differences between states and nations

Answer 45

the elements of a nation and state are different

a state is a political organisation whereas a nation is more social and cultural

possession of a defined territory is essential for a state but not for nation

sovereignty is essential for state but not for nation

a nation can be wider than the state

there can be two or more nations living within one state

a state can be created while a nation is always the result of evolution

the state uses police power and force to preserve its unity and integrity whereas the nation is bound by strong cultural and historical links

Question 46

differences between states and nations: elements of states and nations are different

Answer 46

the state has 4 elements: population, territory, government and sovereignty

in the absence of even one element, a state cannot really be a state — it must have all four of these elements

on the other hand, a nation is merely a group of people that have a strong sense of unity and common consciousness

they may share many common characteristics, such as language and history, but no characteristic is essential in order to be considered a nation

common territory, race, religion, language, history, culture and political aspirations are the elements which help the formation of a nation, but none of these is an essential element

Question 47

differences between states and nations: states are political organisations while nations are more social and cultural

Answer 47

the state is a political organisation which fulfils the security and welfare needs of its people

it is concerned with external human actions

it is a legal entity

on the other hand, the nation is a united unit of population that is full of emotional, spiritual and psychological bonds

a nation has little to do with the physical needs of the people

Question 48

differences between states and nations: possession of a defined territory is essential for state but not for a nation

Answer 48

territory is the physical element of a state and it is essential for a state to possess a fixed territory

however, for a nation, territory is not an essential requirement and nations can survive even without a fixed territory

love of a common motherland can act as a source of unity for a nation, but it is not essential

for example, before 1948 the Jews were a nation even though they had no fixed territory of their own and in 1948 they secured a defined territory and established the state of Israel

Question 49

differences between states and nations: sovereignty is essential for a state but not for a nation

Answer 49

sovereignty is an essential element of the state — it is the soul and defining factor of the state

in the absence of sovereignty, a state loses its existence as it is sovereignty that makes the state different from all other associations of the people

it is not essential for a nation to possess sovereignty as the basic requirement of a nation is the strong bonds of emotional unity among its people, which develop due to several common social-cultural elements

before 1947 India was a nation but not a state as it did not have sovereignty, but following its independence and the end of British Imperial rule in 1947 India became a sovereign state

however, every nation aspires to be sovereign and independent of the control of every other nation

Question 50

differences between states and nations: nations can be wider than the state

Answer 50

the state is limited to a fixed territory — its boundaries can increase or decrease but the process of change is always very complex

however, a nation may or may not remain within the boundaries of a fixed territory

it is a community based on common ethnicity, history and traditions and its boundaries can easily extend beyond the boundaries of the state

for example, the French nation extends to Belgium, Switzerland and Italy because people in these countries belong to the same race to which the French claim to belong

Question 51

differences between states and nations: there can be two or more nationalities living in one state

Answer 51

there can be two or more nations within a single state

for example, before WW1, Austria and Hungary were combined into one state but were two different nations

most modern states are now multinational, including the UK

the modern state is called the nationstate because all the nationalities living in one state stand integrated into one nation

the state continuously pursues the objective of national integration by securing a blending of the majority nationality and all the minority nationalities through collective living and the development of a strong emotional, spiritual and psychological bonds

unity in diversity and plurality is accepted as the guiding principle by all the modern civilised multinational states like India, the USA, Russia, China, Britain and others

Question 52

differences between states and nations: a state can be created while a nation is always the result of evolution

Answer 52

a state can be created with the conscious endeavours of the people

physical elements play an important role in the birth of a state

for example, after WW2 Germany was divided into two separate states: West Germany and East Germany

however, Germans remained emotionally as one nation and in 1990 the Germans were united into a single state following the reunification of Germany

in 1947, Pakistan was created out of India as a separate state

however, a nation is a unity of people which emerges slowly and steadily and no special efforts go into the making of a nation

Question 53

differences between states and nations: the state uses police power and force to preserve its unity and integrity whereas the nation is bound by strong cultural and historical links

Answer 53

a state has police power and those who disobey are punished by the state

a nation does not have police power, force or coercive power — it is backed by moral, emotional and spiritual power and survives on the sense of unity of the people

nations appeal, persuade and boycott, states order, coerce and punish

Question 54

order of states from most likely to least likely to achieve statehood

Answer 54

PALESTINE — recognised by the UN, has a Palestinian National Authority which assumes governmental authority for the West Bank and Gaza Strip, their existence predates the establishment of Israel, has a stable population, defined territory and its own government

CATALONIA — has its own parliament, own police force, etc

THE KURDS — no defined territory, not recognised by international community, would create animosity with states like Iran, but the Kurds were promised a state in the past and have a strong sense of national unity

TRNC — no international recognition aside from Turkey, rejected by the Greek Cypriot community

Question 55

biggest obstacles facing those seeking to achieve statehood

Answer 55

lack of international recognition

unstable government

possible negative implications of independence — for example, Palestine being a sovereign state may pose a threat to the security of Israel, while difficulties with the economy, the EU and debts are preventing Catalonia becoming independent

tension with already recognised and more legitimate states — Palestine and Israel, Catalonia and Spain

Question 56

CASE STUDY: Palestine

Answer 56

in 2011, the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation submitted a formal request for Palestine’s admittance as a full member state into the United Nations

the following month, the executive committee of UNESCO backed this bid in a 107-14 vote

in 2012, the UN General Assembly voted overwhelmingly to recognise Palestine as a non member observer state, thus giving Palestine access to other UN bodies, including the International Criminal Court

the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 meant that the majority of Palestinians became refugees and this problem was exacerbated by the 1967 Six Day War, after which Sinai, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel

the Oslo Accords of 1993, the first face-to-face meeting between the Palestine Liberation Organisation and the government of Israel, prepared the way for the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in 1996 which assumed governmental authority but not sovereignty for the West Bank and the Gaza Strip

the founding of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation in 1964 united a disparate collection of Palestinian groups and strengthened the notion of the Palestinians as a nation separate from existing states such as Jordan, Egypt and Syria

however, it was not until the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority that the Palestinians could be said to have a defined territory and effective government, albeit one that lacked legal and de facto sovereignty

Palestine’s transition from being a non-state entity with an observer status in the UN General Assembly to being a non member observer state has not been endorsed by the UNSC and falls short of full membership of the UN and thus full statehood — this underlines the role of the UN in establishing statehood through formal recognition

nevertheless, as of 2013, 132 of the UN’s 193 members had recognised the existence of the state of Palestine

arguably, the ‘two state solution’ is the only viable solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the continuing denial of the Palestinians’ right to sovereign independence can only strengthen political extremism and hostility towards Israel

Question 57

CASE STUDY: Palestine — why is the Palestinian quest for statehood difficult to achieve?

Answer 57

the creation of a Palestinian state may be difficult to achieve in practical terms

the Palestinian Authority is divided territorially and politically, with Hamas (the Palestinian militant group) controlling the Gaza Strip while the Fatah wing of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation governs the West Bank

if a Palestinian state was constructed in line with the 1967 borders, this would mean that around 500,000 Israelis would be defined as living in another country

many in Israel argue that the implacable Palestinian hatred of Israel would mean that a sovereign Palestinian state would pose an ongoing and intolerable threat to the security and survival of Israel itself

Question 58

CASE STUDY: Catalonia — in what ways does it already have many features of a state?

Answer 58

Catalonia seeks independence from Spain and recently, pro-independence parties have won a slim majority in the Catalan Parliament, but for now Madrid remains firmly in control under emergency powers invoked in October

Catalonia looks like it already has many of the trappings of a state, including its own flags and Parliament as well as its own police force (the Mossos d’Esquadra), its own broadcast regulator and even a series of mini embassies that promote trade and investment in Catalonia around the world

while Catalonia delivers some public services already, including schools and healthcare, there would be much more to set up in the event of independence, including border control, customs, proper international relations, defence, a central bank and air-traffic control, all of which are currently run by Madrid

furthermore, its leader, Carles Puigdemont, is in self imposed exile in Belgium

Question 59

CASE STUDY: Catalonia — some key arguments for independence

Answer 59

Catalonia is certainly rich compared with other parts of Spain and it pays in more than it gets out of the Spanish state

it is home to just 16% of the Spanish population but 19% of its GDP and more than 25% of Spain’s foreign exports

18 million of Spain’s 75 million tourists chose Catalonia as their primary destination last year, making it easily the most visited region in Spain

Tarragona has one of Europe’s largest chemical hubs and Barcelona is one of the EU’s top 20 ports by weight of goods handled

about 1/3 of the working population has some form of tertiary education

Catalans pay more in taxes than is spent on their region — in 2014, Catalans paid nearly €10 billion more in taxes than reached their region in public spending

Question 60

CASE STUDY: Catalonia — problems and concerns with independence

Answer 60

even if Catalonia gained a tax boost from independence, it might be swallowed up by having to create new public institutions and run them without the same economies of scale

assuming it did create these new institutions needed to be informant, it might not be able to pay for them

Catalonia’s public debt is of great concern — the Catalan government currently owes around €77 billion, which is over 35% of Catalonia’s GDP, and €52 billion is owed to the Spanish government

in 2012, the Spanish government set up a fund to provide cash to the regions who are able to borrow money after the financial crisis and Catalonia has been by far the biggest beneficiary of the scheme, taking €67 billion since it began — but if it becomes independent, Catalonia would lose access to the scheme

there are also concerns about how much debt Catalonia would be willing to repay after independence, which casts a shadow over any negotiations

there is much uncertainty over Catalonia’s relationship with Europe — 2/3 of Catalonia’s foreign exports go to the EU, but it would need to reapply to become a member if it secedes from Spain

it would not get membership automatically or immediately and would need all EU members to agree, including Spain

in 2015, the Governor of the Bank of Spain warned Catalans that independence would cause the region to drop out of the Euro automatically, losing access to the European Central Bank

normally, new EU members must apply to join the euro and meet certain criteria such as their debt not being too large a percentage of their GDP — but even if Catalonia could meet those criteria, a qualified majority of Eurozone countries has to approve their entry into the euro, which Spain and its allies could block

there is a lot of uncertainty of what would happen if Catalonia became independent because nobody has ever declared independence from a member of the Eurozone then asked to rejoin the Eurozone as a new country

Question 61

CASE STUDY: Catalonia — what are the effects of uncertainty about Catalonia’s independence?

Answer 61

uncertainty created by the struggle for independence has already hit the Catalan economy

more than 3100 companies have moved their legal headquarters out of the region, including major banks such as Caixabank and Banco de Sabadell

Question 62

CASE STUDY: Catalonia — what are other options for Catalonia if it cannot become a member of the EU?

Answer 62

Catalonia could settle for single market membership without joining the EU, meaning they’d pay for access and continue to accept free movement of EU citizens across the region’s borders

there is uncertainty about whether Catalonia could use the euro without joining the Eurozone — some countries such as San Marino and Vatican City do so since they’re too small to ever become EU member states

others, such as Kosovo and Montenegro, use the euro without the EU’s blessing and so do not have access to the European Central Bank