The State

Question 1

what do states have?

Answer 1

states have sovereignty, it is the defining characteristic of a state
sovereignty means that states have absolute and ultimate power and authority over their citizens
the state is a territorially-based political unit, defined as having four key features…
• stable population
• effective government
• legally defined territory
• the ability to enter into relations with other states, which requires recognition by other states

MONTEVIDEO CONVENTION 1933

Question 2

Treaty of Westphalia

Answer 2

the legal basis for the modern state was established by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648
brought a conclusion to the brutal Thirty Years War in Europe and is seen as the starting point of both modern international law and international politics
established three key principles…
• the principle of sovereignty of states
• the principle of legal equality between states
• the principle of non-intervention by one state in the internal affairs of another state
established the belief that nations have a right to rule themselves, as well as a right to independence and democratic rule
the ‘Westphalian system’ is used to describe a state centric view of the world, which sees states as central to international relations - this view is closely aligned with realism

Question 3

5 characteristics of a nation

Answer 3

self identifying community that does not necessarily have sovereignty
not necessarily recognised by the international community
not necessarily possessing a state, like the Kurds
defined territory is not needed
nations can live in more than one state

Question 4

5 characteristics of a state

Answer 4

political entity with sovereignty

recognised by the international community

can contain more than one nation or community - most states are culturally and ethnically diverse, so do not represent a single nation (e.g. Iraq is so diverse that it can be seen as a state without a nation, and the UK contains several nations)

requires defined territory

cannot cross the boundaries into other states

Question 5

what do individuals in a nation have in
common?

Answer 5

the individuals in a nation may have certain characteristics in common

these may include…
• territory
• language
• ethnicity
• history
• customs and traditions
• religion

although none of these characteristics are absolutely essential - for a group to be considered a nation they only need to share some of these characteristics

for example, members of a nation may not share the same religion or even the same language but they still may see themselves as belonging to the same nation

Question 6

why is nationhood important?

Answer 6

nationhood is important as it is the idea behind one of the most powerful forces in global politics: nationalism
nationalism is a strong belief in one’s own country
it has been the force behind some of the greatest changes and conflicts in recent world history
it can be a force for good, uniting people and leading them to freedom from the tyranny of others
it can also be a force for bad, leading countries and people to war and conflict
nationalism supports the idea that the proper basis for the state is the nation - this is best expressed through the ideal of national self-determination (to each nation, a state)

Question 7

what is a state?

Answer 7

a specific form of political entity that meets 4 criteria….
• a functioning and effective government
• a defined territory
• recognition by other nation states
• a permanent population

Question 8

process and development of states throughout history

Answer 8

the process of national self determination has happened in two stages….
• 19th century - the transformation of Europe into nation states (e.g. the Unification of Germany in 1871 as well as Italy in 1870)
• 20th century - the collapse of the British Empire in Africa and the Ottoman Empire in Asia after WW1, and the collapse of the
USSR in 1991, to be replaced by nationstates
this has led to most modern states being seen as nation states, which have authority and legitimacy as they embody and represent the nation

Question 9

a defined territory
examples of conflict based on disagreements between states and competing claims to territory…. (3)

Answer 9

a state can only have sovereignty or absolute and unlimited power over somewhere
much of the political conflict in the world is based on disagreements between states as to who owns which territory

• dispute between the UK and Argentina over the Falkland
Islands, which led to a war under Margaret Thatcher
• the Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan which has been going on since 1947
• the disagreements and rising tensions between China and its neighbours over islands and sea rights in the South China Sea

Question 10

a permanent population
Example (1)

Answer 10

for a state to exist, it must have people permanently living in that territory
so if there are no people, then there is no state
for example, Antarctica does not have a permanent population so does not meet the criterion for statehood and cannot be
considered a state

Question 11

a functioning and effective government (1)

Answer 11

Territories meeting statehood criteria may be unable to enforce laws or exercise sovereignty, classifying them as failed states.

Syria, embroiled in civil war since 2011, exemplifies a failed state.
President al-Assad’s government lost control to rebel groups and ISIS, undermining its effectiveness as a state.
Lack of territorial control raises questions about sovereignty and fulfillment of statehood criteria.

Question 12

recognition by other nation states (3)

Answer 12

Recognition by other states is a crucial criterion for statehood, allowing effective engagement in international relations and exercising sovereignty.

A state-like entity, despite having territory, population, and administration, must gain acknowledgment from other states to establish itself as a sovereign entity.

Kosovo is recognized by many countries but lacks full UN membership, limiting its international status.

Palestine faces increasing global pressure for formal recognition and UN membership despite not currently holding such status.

South Sudan, recognized as a state in 2011, exemplifies the importance of international acknowledgment, as evidenced by its UN membership.

Question 13

what is a nation state?

Answer 13

the prime political entity of the modern era and the Westphalian system
it is essentially a nation with its own state, bringing together the political entity of the state and the cultural entity of a nation
but this can be further developed, the nation state is also…
• a state that represents the political wishes of a nation, and thus gains authority and legitimacy
• a self-governing state
• a state that is based on the principles of self-determination
the nation state is now the dominant model and the UN recognises
193 states in the world which are best described as nation states

Question 14

×3 issues with nationhood and statehood

Answer 14

nations without a state - scotland,the kurds,basque and catolan

national claims that cross borders- ireland,russia,palestine

states not recognised by other states- kosovo,the kurds

Question 15

nations without a state: SCOTLAND
example of a nation exercising their right to decide whether to become an independent state

Answer 15

there are ongoing claims for nations that do not have their own state
Scotland held an independence referendum in 2014 where the people of Scotland exercised their right to decide whether they wanted to secede from the UK and become an independent state in their own right
on this occasion, they voted to remain in the UK
but the event still made it clear that the Scots have a right to determine their own future and any vote by the Scottish people to leave the UK would be considered legitimate

Question 16

nations without a state: BASQUE COUNTRY +
CATALONIA
example of how independence for some nations is complicated and difficult to achieve

Answer 16

the issue of independence is not so clear for the Basque people and the Catalonians of Spain

whereas the UK government gave its blessing to a Scottish independence referendum and would honour the alternative outcome, the Spanish government has not recognised the right of the Basque or Catalonian people to determine their own future outside of Spain

the secessionist movements of these parts of Spain play on the nationalist sentiment of their people, drawing on the shared and distinct history, traditions, language and folklore of these areas to try to convince the people to push for an independent and sovereign nation of Catalonia and the Basque Country

these kind of secessionist movements have at times turned to violence - notably with the ETA group in the Basque Country of northern Spain “fighting for their freedom”, which is a stance that many others might call terrorism

Question 17

nations without a state: THE KURDS
example of the largest nation without a state of its own

Answer 17

the largest nation in the world that is acknowledged as not having its own state is the Kurdish people of Syria, Turkey and Iraq

there are around 30 million Kurds, mostly Sunni Muslims, who share a unique language and live in an area that spans Iraq, Turkey, Iran and Syria, making them the world’s largest stateless nation

in the early 20th century, many Kurds began to consider the creation of a homeland referred to as Kurdistan - after WW1 and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, victorious Western allies made provisions for a Kurdish state in the 1920 Treaty of Sevres

however, in 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne set the boundaries of modern Turkey but made no provision for a Kurdish state and left the Kurds with minority status in their respective countries
over the next 80 years, any move by the Kurds to set up an independent state was brutally quashed

the Kurds feel that they are a persecuted minority and some have taken up violence against the Turkish state to push for Kurdish self-determination

in Syria, the Kurds have been fighting against Dash (ISIS) and have achieved some sort of autonomy in the country
in Iraq, they have had similar autonomy for a number of years and have effectively or de facto had their own country or state

however, the Kurds face big problems in trying to achieve an independent, sovereign Kurdistan because the territory they claim as their own already belongs to sovereign states that are highly unlikely to give it up

furthermore, other states are unwilling to allow a precedent whereby parts of countries can be broken away from sovereign states without their permission

Question 18

national claims that cross borders

Answer 18

a further difficulty is that the territorial claims of a nation do not always coincide with the borders of states
many states are in dispute with the neighbours over the sovereignty or ownership of territory
which is only complicated further by competing historical and traditional claims of the people who live in that territory
one of the ideas behind the nation is attachment to territory or land so conflicts often arise when two or more nations claim the same
land

Question 19

national claims that cross borders:
NORTHERN IRELAND
example of nations claiming the same territory in the UK

Answer 19

the UK has its own example of this problem of more than one nation claiming the same territory
two opposing communities or nations claim the territory of
Northern Ireland as their own
the Unionist community wants Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK while the Nationalist community believes Northern Ireland should be part of the Republic of Ireland
both sides have valid historical claims to the land, both can claim a certain legitimacy and both believe they are right
this has led to significant conflict throughout the 20th century known as The Troubles, which carried on until the Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998 to establish peace between the two communities
although even with this agreement in place, there is still significant tension in the region and a delicate balance between the opposing sides

Question 20

national claims that cross borders: PALESTINE
† ISRAEL
example of nations claiming the same territory in the Middle East

Answer 20

but it is not just the Nationalists and Unionists of Northern Ireland who have competing claims to the same territory
this type of dispute can be seen in the Middle East with Israeli and Palestinian claims to the same territory resulting in decades of conflict that has shown no significant signs of slowing down

Question 21

national claims that cross borders: UKRAINE
AND RUSSIA
example of recent conflict involving nations claiming the same territory

Answer 21

the recent conflict in Ukraine is founded on the same problem
ethnic Russians who identify with the Russian nation and state are living in the internationally recognised state of Ukraine
the Russian separatists want closer ties with Russia but the
Ukrainians believe their state should be sovereign and independent of Russia

Question 22

states not recognised by other states

Answer 22

there are several examples of state-like entities that are not recognised by other states, so find it difficult to operate in the international system
pressing examples of states not recognised by other states are
Kosovo, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria
the idea of a world of nation states, where states represent the nation, is perhaps more fiction and fact as many nations are struggling to gain recognition as nation states

Question 23

states not recognised by other states:
TRANSNISTRIA

Answer 23

Transnistria is part of Moldova and since 1990, it is a self declared and more less functioning independent state
however, it is not internationally recognised by any other sovereign state
it has a majority Slavic population, as opposed to the majority Moldovan that Moldova has, making it distinct from Moldova
it is essentially a de facto state as it has its own police, army and currency as well as functions outside of the jurisdiction of Moldova
but there is no sign of it becoming an internationally recognised country anytime soon

Question 24

states not recognised by other states:
SOMALILAND

Answer 24

Somaliland is a former British protectorate in East Africa which was independent for four days in 1960, before joining up with Italian Somalia
it remained part of Somalia until the government collapsed in 1999 and then Somaliland unilaterally declared independence
Dr Rebecca Richards explains that “There is a remarkably strong government… It’s had a series of democratic elections. It is peaceful. It is stable. There is an incredible amount of economic development taking place. It’s pretty much everything that you would expect to see in a state”
however, Somaliland is not recognised by any other state
this makes life hard for people living there because while there is limited access to some types of developmental and humanitarian assistance, much of this, especially aid from the UN, goes through
Somalia
access to international markets is difficult without legal protections and as Somaliland’s currency is not recognised outside its borders, it has no international value

Question 25

what is sovereignty?

Answer 25

sovereignty means absolute power and authority
before the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, states did not have sovereignty or absolute and unlimited power
within a state, the state has absolute power over its citizens and everyone who resides within its jurisdiction

Question 26

the Westphalian state system

Answer 26

the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years War and developed the principle of state sovereignty
it ended the Holy Roman Emperor’s claim to possess sovereign authority over virtually independent German states
this meant that each individual state would be sovereign over its own internal affairs and no other state or supposedly superior body could intervene within its borders
Westphalia also defined the theory of the sovereign equality of states - no state has the legal right to intervene in the sovereign affairs of another state AND all states, whatever the size, possess the same legal right to independence
in 1918, Woodrow Wilson established the principle that nation state sovereignty should be founded upon the right of self-determination, based on a shared ethnic heritage
this led to the creation of new states such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland after WW1

Question 27

internal sovereignty

Answer 27

the location of sovereignty within a state
the power of a body within the state to make decisions that are binding on individuals and groups in the territory - e.g. parliament and parliamentary sovereignty
the ability to maintain order

Max Weber describes internal sovereignty as a monopoly over the use of legitimate violence within the state (e.g. through the police or the army)

Joseph Schumpeter added to this and said that sovereignty also involves a monopoly over the ability to raise taxes within the state

Question 28

external sovereignty

Answer 28

there is no legal or political authority above the state - link to realism, which believes that states are the most important actors in
global politics
the right of autonomy to make decisions within the territory of the state free from external interference
all states are equally sovereign in their relations with each other, the least powerful state is a sovereign as the most powerful state and so its territorial integrity is as legally valid
Article 2 of Chapter 1 of the UN Charter notes that: “the organisation is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members”
governments can make decisions about their own territories without being interfered with by other states - no state can tell another state how to behave
no state or legal body has the right to intervene in the sovereign affairs of any nation state

Question 29

characteristics of national sovereignty

Answer 29

the law applies to everyone and there is no opting out - should anyone break the law of the state they can be arrested, put on trial in court, sentenced to prison and in some states eventually executed

Max Weber defined the state as having a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory and the state will seek to legitimise this monopoly

Question 30

what has sovereignty led to?

Answer 30

sovereignty has provided the basis for international law
for instance, in the United Nations General Assembly, each nationstate has one vote which reinforces the sovereign equality of states
international law also guarantees the territorial boundaries and autonomy of nation states
Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter says that all member states should
“respect the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of other states” and Article 7 says that the UN cannot intervene in the domestic jurisdiction of any state_

Question 31

what is sovereignty often the basis for?

Answer 31

sovereignty is also the basis for conflict
for example, the desire for the Palestinians to establish a nationstate in the territory claimed by Israel

Question 32

what is state sovereignty under attack from?

Answer 32

the traditional concept of state sovereignty and the billiard ball model have come under attack from…
• globalisation and growing levels of interdependence which have led to state borders becoming increasingly porous and have caused a decline in sovereignty - states can no longer act as discrete entities and must consider other states, borders have become increasingly meaningless
• the increasing role of nonstate actors such as TNCs and NGOs, which appear to work outside of the traditional limits of sovereignty
• the growing role of international institutions, especially the move from intergovernmentalism to supranationalism and regionalism, which undermines sovereignty (e.g. the debate surrounding the EU taking the UK’s sovereignty)
• the growing tension between national sovereignty and human rights, leading to the idea that states have the right to intervene in other states to protect those rights, which undermines sovereignty (e.g. the Iraq War)

Question 33

sovereignty in the UK

Answer 33

at a basic level, sovereignty within the state or internal sovereignty is relatively straightforward - it is easy to identify the location of sovereignty in the UK constitution
parliament is the sovereign body of the UK and there is no higher body in parliament - this parliamentary sovereignty is the most fundamental principle in the UK constitution
there is no law that parliament cannot pass and only parliament can overturn an act passed by parliament
however, as a democracy, it can also be argued that the people are sovereign and that there is popular sovereignty
the consequences of the UK’s EU referendum suggest that popular sovereignty weighs more than legislative sovereignty since
Parliament was unprepared to ignore the vote
the UK’s withdrawal from the EU will further change the location of sovereignty within the UK
in certain circumstances, the prime minister exercises sovereignty on behalf of the monarch through the use of the royal prerogative
the devolved Scottish and Welsh assemblies may be in the process of achieving de facto sovereignty in their domestic affairs
the location of sovereignty within the state may change - in 2017, the Supreme Court determined that parliament, not the government, had the sovereign authority to trigger Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty to begin the process of taking the UK out of the EU

Question 34

sovereignty in the USA

Answer 34

in the USA, there are complications in terms of sovereignty
the preamble to the US constitution declares “We the people…”, indicating that there is popular sovereignty and that this is upheld by the constitution
however, the US is also a federal country, Meaning that there are at least two or more autonomous over bodies in the USA. in fact 50 individual states share sovereignty with the federal government
furthermore, within the branches of government there is a system of checks and balances, meaning that no one institution of government is sovereign - unlike in the UK, where parliament is sovereign

Question 35

realist view on sovereignty: the billiard ball model

Answer 35

realism sees states as billiard balls, with sovereignty being their key property and the key aim of states being maximum relative power
when the billiard balls collide, sovereignty allows the state to
survive
recognises that states have different levels of power, so the billiard balls can be different sizes and this leads global politics to focus on the great powers
the billiard ball model treats all states as equal and does not distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ states - e.g. the motives of the USA and USSR during the Cold War were the same and were not driven by domestic political or economic factors

Question 36

differences between states and nations: sovereignty is essential for a state but not for a nation - india example

Answer 36

sovereignty is an essential element of the state - it is the soul and defining factor of the state
in the absence of sovereignty, a state loses its existence as it is sovereignty that makes the state different from all other associations of the people
it is not essential for a nation to possess sovereignty as the basic requirement of a nation is the strong bonds of emotional unity among its people, which develop due to several common social-cultural elements
before 1947 India was a nation but not a state as it did not have sovereignty, but following its independence and the end of British Imperial rule in 1947 India became a sovereign state
however, every nation aspires to be sovereign and independent of the control of every other nation

Question 37

differences between states and nations: a state can be created while a nation is alwavs the result of evolution

Answer 37

a state can be created with the conscious endeavours of the people
physical elements play an important role in the birth of a state
for example, after WW2 Germany was divided into two separate states: West Germany and East Germany
however, Germans remained emotionally as one nation and in 1990 the Germans were united into a single state following the reunification of Germany
in 1947, Pakistan was created out of India as a separate state
however, a nation is a unity of people which emerges slowly and steadily and no special efforts go into the making of a nation

Question 38

biggest obstacles facing those seeking to achieve statehood

Answer 38

lack of international recognition
unstable government
possible negative implications of independence - for example, Palestine being a sovereign state may pose a threat to the security of Israel, while difficulties with the economy, the EU and debts are preventing Catalonia becoming independent
tension with already recognised and more legitimate states - Palestine and Israel, Catalonia and Spain

Question 39

CASE STUDY: Palestine

Answer 39

in 2011, the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation submitted a formal request for Palestine’s admittance as a full member state into the United Nations
the following month, the executive committee of UNESCO backed this bid in a 107-14 vote
in 2012, the UN General Assembly voted overwhelmingly to recognise Palestine as a non member observer state, thus giving Palestine access to other UN bodies, including the International Criminal Court
the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 meant that the majority of Palestinians became refugees and this problem was exacerbated by the 1967 Six Day War, after which Sinai, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel
the Oslo Accords of 1993, the first face-to-face meeting between the Palestine Liberation Organisation and the government of Israel, prepared the way for the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in 1996 which assumed governmental authority but not sovereignty for the West Bank and the Gaza Strip

Question 40

CASE STUDY: Palestine - why is the Palestinian quest for statehood difficult to achieve?

Answer 40

the creation of a Palestinian state may be difficult to achieve in practical terms
the Palestinian Authority is divided territorially and politically, with Hamas (the Palestinian militant group) controlling the Gaza Strip while the Fatah wing of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation governs the West Bank
if a Palestinian state was constructed in line with the 1967 borders, this would mean that around 500,000 Israelis would be defined as living in another country
many in Israel argue that the implacable Palestinian hatred of Israel would mean that a sovereign Palestinian state would pose an ongoing and intolerable threat to the security and survival of Israel itself

Question 41

CASE STUDY: Catalonia - in what ways does it already have many features of a state?

Answer 41

Catalonia seeks independence from Spain and recently, pro-independence parties have won a slim majority in the Catalan Parliament, but for now Madrid remains firmly in control under emergency powers invoked in October
Catalonia looks like it already has many of the trappings of a state, including its own flags and Parliament as well as its own police force (the Mossos d’Esquadra), its own broadcast regulator and even a series of mini embassies that promote trade and investment in Catalonia around the world
while Catalonia delivers some public services already, including schools and healthcare, there would be much more to set up in the event of independence, including border control, customs, proper international relations, defence, a central bank and air-traffic control, all of which are currently run by Madrid
furthermore, its leader, Carles Puigdemont, is in self imposed exile in Belgium

Question 42

CASE STUDY: Catalonia - some key arguments for independence

Answer 42

Catalonia is certainly rich compared with other parts of Spain and it pays in more than it gets out of the Spanish state
it is home to just 16% of the Spanish population but 19% of its GDP and more than 25% of Spain’s foreign exports
18 million of Spain’s 75 million tourists chose Catalonia as their primary destination last year, making it easily the most visited region in Spain
Tarragona has one of Europe’s largest chemical hubs and Barcelona is one of the EU’s top 20 ports by weight of goods handled
about 1/3 of the working population has some form of tertiary education
Catalans pay more in taxes than is spent on their region - in 2014, Catalans paid nearly €10 billion more in taxes than reached their region in public spending

Question 43

CASE STUDY: Catalonia - problems and concerns with independence

Answer 43

even if Catalonia gained a tax boost from independence, it might be swallowed up by having to create new public institutions and run them without the same economies of scale
assuming it did create these new institutions needed to be informant, it might not be able to pay for them
Catalonia’s public debt is of great concern - the Catalan government currently owes around €77 billion, which is over 35% of Catalonia’s GDP, and €52 billion is owed to the Spanish government
in 2012, the Spanish government set up a fund to provide cash to the regions who are able to borrow money after the financial crisis and Catalonia has been by far the biggest beneficiary of the scheme, taking €67 billion since it began - but if it becomes independent, Catalonia would lose access to the scheme
there are also concerns about how much debt Catalonia would be willing to repay after independence, which casts a shadow over any negotiations

Question 44

CASE STUDY: Catalonia - what are the effects of uncertainty about
Catalonia’s independence?

Answer 44

uncertainty created by the struggle for independence has already hit the Catalan economy
more than 3100 companies have moved their legal headquarters out of the region, including major banks such as Caixabank and Banco de Sabadell

Question 45

CASE STUDY: Catalonia - what are other options for Catalonia if it cannot become a member of the EU?

Answer 45

Catalonia could settle for single market membership without joining the EU, meaning they’d pay for access and continue to accept free movement of EU citizens across the region’s borders
there is uncertainty about whether Catalonia could use the euro without joining the Eurozone - some countries such as San Marino and Vatican City do so since they’re too small to ever become EU member states
others, such as Kosovo and Montenegro, use the euro without the EU’s blessing and so do not have access to the European Central Bank