The Sixties 64-70 Flashcards
What social changes took place in the 50s and 60s in regards to the middle-class
Increased social mobility
End of censorship caused increased awareness
Age of consumerism
Tax cuts, higher wages, union activity, better work condition
What social changes took place in the 50s and 60s in regards to teenagers
Voting age lowered to 18
Very anti-war and anti-nuclear (hippies)
More common higher education
Ending of National Service created less macho/agro generation
What social changes took place in the 50s and 60s in regards to women
More free time
Contraceptives led to family planning
Abortion and divorce legalised
Second wave of feminism
What social changes took place in the 50s and 60s in regards to immigrants
90% of people opposed interracial marriages
Race Relation Acts clamped down on discrimination
Clamp down on immigration
Enoch Powell
Changes in relation to homosexuality
Decriminalised it in 67, before many other countries
Homosexual relations only legalised over the age of 21
Vassall affair caused increased homophobia
No gay marriage or civil partnerships
Culture was still homophobic
Changes in relation to divorce
Divorce Reform Act 1969 allowed unilateral and no-fault divorce
2 years seperate if both parties agree, or 3 years seperate if unilateral.
Changes in reltion to the death penalty
Opposition arose in the 50s
Outlawed in the 1965 Murder Act
Slight increase in violent crime after outlawing
Ruth Ellis case raised awareness for it
What was the Ruth Ellis case?
Model who stabbed abusive husband, public sided with her in the case but she was still hanged
Last woman to be executed in UK
Changes in relation to abortion
Legalised in 1967 for under 28 weeks
100,000-200,000 illegal abortions per year before legalisation
Originally on-demand abortion was not what was advocated for by politicians, but that is how it developed
Who spearheaded much of the ‘liberal legislation’ under Wilson?
Roy Jenkins (Home Sec)
What law legalised homosexuality?
Sexual Offences Act 1967
What law legalised abortion?
Abortion Act 1967
How did liberal bills come about?
They were Private Member Bills, and weren’t endorsed by the party (moral issues weren’t in Labour manifesto)
What law ended capital punishment?
Murder Act 1965
What law legalised divorce?
Divorce Reform Act 1969
How much did divorce rates increase by the 70s?
It had quintupled (0.2% before liberalisation -> 1% in mid-70s)
What crisis changed peoples minds on abortion?
Thalidomide
What justification was needed to abort a foetus after liberalisation?
Mental suffering
What were the caveats in the liberalisation of homosexuality?
- No marriage or civil partnerships
- Decriminalised, not legalised
- Both partners over the age of 21
- Had to ‘be in private’ (this was often interpreted as no one else being in the building)
What matters were subject to liberal legislation?
-Homosexuality
-Abortion
-Divorce
-Capital Punishment
-Education
-Censorship
What were the issues surrounding the tripartite system of education?
Socially divisive
Secondary students looked down upon as ‘11+ rejects’
Grammar schools dominated by middle class
What is a comprehensive school?
A school which provides secondary education fot all children in a given area. Had grown tenfold since 1951
What was comprehensivisation?
Education minister Tony Crossland requested all schools to be turned into comprehensives.
Money would be given to comprehensives for new school buildings.
After comprehensivisation, 1/3 of students went to comprehensives, up from the previous 1/10.
Report on British education
Robbins Report showed that UK was lagging behind US, France and Germany in STEM
Polytechnics and STEM-focused universities were created that were less dominated by middle-class than most universities.
What was the Open University?
Harold Wilson’s passion project, (what he wants to be remembered by).
University for those who didn’t have the opportunity to get higher education.
High quality degrees in art and science.
Used radio and TV as long-distance learning to reach many.
More students than Oxbridge
Headed by Jennie Lee
How many people had TVs in 1961?
75%
Change in holidays from 1950-70
27m to 41m
What were the aftermath of relaxation of censorship?
More liberal attitudes, as issues such as sex, violence, politics, violence and religion could be discussed.
‘Wave of decadence’ never hapened.
The play Hair showed full frontal nudity to the audience.
How many university students were female in the 70s?
30%
When did the Equal Pay Act come into affect?
1975
What were the four demands of the National Women’s Liberation Conference?
-Equal pay
-Free contaception and abortion
-Equal educational and job opportunities
-Free 24 hour childcare
Who was Mary Whitehouse?
Very conservative advocate for censorship, opposed social liberalism and the permissive society.
What was the increase in drug usage in the first half of the 60s?
Cocaine and heroine usage increased tenfold
Who were Wilson’s home secretaries?
Roy Jenins and Jim Callaghan
What caused the youth to become more rebellious?
Increased living standards, spread of education, ending of National Service
How did entertainment change to fit youth culture?
Establishment of Radio 1
Changes in fashion and music
TV shows like Top of the Pops
Anti-Vietnam Protest
Battle of Grosvenor Square; 80,000 students gathered outisde the American embassy in 1968, 200 were arrested.
What voting reform took place during The Sixties?
Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18
What subcultures developed in The Sixties?
Hippies - Counter-culture, anti-War, anti-nukes, drug culture, incorporated other cultures, The Beatles
Skinheads - Developed from mods, apolitical but associated with far-right, anti-immigration, hooligans, Paki-bashing
How many votes did Powell get the Conservatives in the 1970 election?
2.5 million
What was Harold Wilson’s promise on technology?
To reforge Britain in the white heat of technological revolution
What characterised Labour’s ‘technological progress’?
The Post Office Tower
Concorde
Open University (‘University of the Air’)
What was the DEA?
Originally planned to be in control of the entirety of the economy (inc the Treasury)
Most of its staff were whisked off to the Treasure soon before its launch
Led by alcoholic and impulsive George Brown
Department of Economic Affairs
Would work with unions and pressure firms to stop inflation rising
Alternative to stop-go economics (status quo)
Competed with chancellery
Underfunded
Died in 1967
What were the two racial pieces of legislation passed to cancel each other out?
Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968:
-Cancelled the rights of Commonwealthers to freely enter the UK unless they had a parent or grandparent already in the UK.
-Introduced after a wave of Kenyan Asians began coming to GB after expulsion by Kenyatta
Race Relations Act 1965:
-Outlawed race based discrimination
-Founded impotent Race Relations Board (75% of cases dismissed before charges)
Why were TUs becoming more millitant in The Sixties?
New TU leaders didn’t know the scarcity of the Great Depression, and only knew the AoA, so expected high wage rises
How did Wilson present himself as different to Lord Home?
Yorkshire accent and pipe smoking made him seem working class
First PM to have gone to a public secondary school
Home was very aristocratic
What was the deficit that Labour inherited?
£800m (double the most liberal predictions)
Major strikes during The Sixties
Seamen Strike (NUS) 1966:
-Quashed by Wilson
-Caused a run on the pound
Ford Dagenham Strike 1968:
-Women striking for equal pay
-Joined by Barbara Castle
-Created momentum leading to Equal Pay Act 1970
Liverpool Dockers Strike 1970:
-State of emergency declared
-Cost UK up to £100m
-UK Army almost had to protect food supplies
What caused inflation to rise in the late 1960s?
12% in 1969
Oil:
-OPEC sanctions on West during Six Day Way
-Nigerial Civil War
Industrial:
-Dockers Strike
-Seamen Strike
Devaluation timeline
Wilson knew he had to break away from the deflationary policies of Stop-Go
Labour put off devalution as long as possible, trying DEA to fix economy instead
Wilson was told ‘the dance is up’ and made Callaghan devalue the pound
Callaghan devalued sterling by 14% from $2.80 -> $2.40
Callaghan resigned and swapped with Home Secretary Jenkins
BoP surplus in 1969
Devaluation didn’t reap the benefits it was meant to due to the dockers’ strike halting trade
The 1968 Plot
In 1968, Cecil King (a newspaper industrialist) had a meeting with Lord Mountbatten and some others discussed ousting Harold Wilson and replacing him with a military dictatorship. Mountbatten rejected this and it fell apart.
Who was on the left, centre and right of the Labour Party during The Sixties?
LEFT:
Tony Benn
Michael Foot
Barbara Castle
Frank Cousins
CENTRE:
Harold Wilson
Jim Callahan
RIGHT:
Roy Jenkins
Anthony Crossland
Denis Healy
George Brown
When was a BoP surplus reached?
1969 by Roy Jenkins
What was In Place of Strife
A 1969 white paper created by Barbara Castle to kneecap the increasingly militant TUs. It was shot down by Jim Callaghan, the Left of the party and the TUs that donated to Labour (notably Jack Jones from the TGWU).
28 day cooling off period
Government could impose settlements between unions and firms
Ballots must be held before striking
Who were the League of Empire Loyalists?
Far-right group pressure group, would go on to form the National Front
What was Wilson’s key governing trait in the Sixties
Paranoia
Always saw key politicians as a potential risk, so played cabinet ministers off against each other
Opinion polls for Enoch Powell
66% in 1970
What was Operation Banner?
The operation wherein British forces were deployed in Northern Ireland, and the B-Specials (paramilitary wing of the RUC) was disbanded. Army was welcomed by nationalists as a protector of them before Bloody Sunday
What did Jenkins call his first term as Home Secretary
Liberal Hour
Which MP raised divorce liberalisation as a private members bill?
Leo Abse
Which MP raised ending capital punishment as a private members bill?
Syd Silverman
What was Wilson’s kitchen cabinet
His confidants (SPADs and Marcia Williams) who he made a lot of decisions with
How many students were being sent to the wrong schools due to the 11+?
60,000 a year
Teaching style of the Sixties
New style child-focused was emerging, emphasising creativity and community over strictness
Change to the judicial system
Majority verdicts for juries could not be accepted, instituted by Roy Jenkins. Showed how he was tough on crime despite Murder Act 1965
Jenkin’s budgets
1968 and 69 budgets hiked taxes significantly
1968 rose taxes by £900m
Why did Wilson’s promise of technological revolution not pan out
Government had more important issues (ie economy and LibLeg) to focus on technology
What did Wilson promise about devalution
“The pound in your pocket” has not been devalued / is not worth less (lie)
Rivers of Blood speech
Given by Enoch Powell in 1968 warning about the risk that mass migration poses to the UK. Disliked by party establishment, causing Powell to fall out with Heath. Most of the population agreed with him at the time though.
Gallup poll showed 75% of population agreed with him
Prices and Incomes Policy
In 1966, due to rising concerns about inflation, Wilson created the Prices and Incomes Board to control the prices and wages in the UK. Frank Cousins resigned over it, and it made the government fall out with TUs
What was the Open University
The OU provided free university tuition through television. Headed by Jennie Lee. Symbolised the technological modernisation mood of the Wilson government. 70,000 students by 1980.
What was the National Plan
Plan drafted by George Brown and the DEA that laid out plans for 4% annual growth, and 25% GDP growth by 1970. Failed as DEA was underfunded and understaffed.
What was Denis Healey’s plans for defence
Cut defence spending to £2bn by 1970. This would entail a withdrawal from Britain’s military commitments “East of Suez”, which the Americans did not like.
When did Wilson fail to join the EEC?
1967
Opinion polls for TUs in 60s
Hovered around 60%
Wilson on Vietnam
Wilson didn’t want to join the war in Vietnam, straining relations with the Americans.
America offered to prop up the pound during the sterling crisis if the UK joined the war in Vietnam.
Wilson played the middle road of nto condemning the war, but never joining it, annoying both the Americans and the pacifist students (Grosvernor Square)
Rhodesia Crisis
The white ruling class of Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the UK in 1964, as the UK only gave independence to colonies with majority rule and democracy.
Ian Smith, the white nationalist leader of Rhodesia met with Wilson on board the HMS Fearless in 1968, but Smith went back on all his promises when he went back to Rhodesia.
The UK tried to embargo Rhodesia, but oil companies, South Africa, Portugal and France ignored this and kept trading with them. Costing the UK £500m
Black nationalists revolted (ZANU and ZAPU) led by Robert Mubagwe leading to a civil war.
Britain temporarily diplomatically regained control over Rhodesia to help it transition to majority rule under Thatcher in 1979
American support was lukewarm
What was the cause of the beginning of the Troubles?
Traditional industries such as shipbuilding were declining in NI resulting in mass unemployment and therefore factional fighting over resources such as housing and jobs
Relationship between Wilson and LBJ
Vietnam and the withdrawal East of Suez caused a large rift between them. Wilson would try to advise Johnson on issues, but Johnson would get angry at this
Which TV show displayed the realities of backstreet abortions
The Wednesday Play
What movie portrayed violence, gang warfare and rape in the 60s
A Clockwork Orange
Who was the liberal clergyman that played a key role in liberalising legislation
Bishop of Woolwich, testified in the Lady Chattlerley’s Lover Trial
Increase in abortions
4 per hundred live births in 1968
18 per hundred live births in 1975
Which law removed censorship
Obscene Publications Act
NI: What was the Battle of the Bogside
Violent clash between Protestant Apprentice Boys / RUC and the Catholic residents of Bogside, Derry in 1969.
RUC used tear gas on Catholics.
Triggered Operation Banner
First death of the Troubles
Led to the creation of Free Derry
Crossland’s education reform
Circular 10/65:
Requested all schools to transition into comprehensives (non-exclusionary)
Government would fund expansions of comprehensives
By 1970, 1/3 state-educated children went to comprehensives
Growth in comprehensives before Circular 10/65
1% of students in 1951 -> 10% in 1964
When did The Sun start being published
1964
What amount of journies were taken in cars in 1974?
75%, up from 40% in 1954
Which play capitalised on the reversal of play censorship?
Hair (featured full frontal nudity)
How many women reached managerial positions in 1970
5%
What percentage of unviersity students were female in 1970
28%
1965 North London Race Poll:
1/5 refused to work with blacks
1/2 would refuse to live next to blacks
9/10 opposed mixed-race marriages
Notting Hill Carnival
Annual, starting in 1964. Celebrated minority cultures (esp Carribean)
Highest rate of tax
91% for top earners
How did UK foreign policy change after devaluation?
UK began to focus more on collective security (eg NATO and AUKUZ)
US wouldn’t let the UK in AUKUZ after we recognised the PRC
NI: Situation of Catholics before the Troubles
Catholics weren’t given equal opportunities in housing and employment. NI votes were based on households, and as Catholics had larger families they would get less voting rights.
1/5 of men were homeless in Derry
Galvanised by the Civil Rights movement in the US, NICRA formed to further Catholic rights in NI, they organised marches
NI: What was Operation Harvest
IRA terrorist campaign in 50s and 60s
NI: What were the Northern Ireland Riots?
1969 riots in NI for Catholic rights
Battle of the Bogside
150+ homes destroyed
Peace lines set up
British army sent in
NI: NI PM during The Sixties
Captain O’Neill, UUP
Moderate, gave Catholics rights after 1969 riots
What was Wilson’s attitude towards unions?
‘Beer and sandwiches at Number 10’
Tried to cajole instead of force
Wanted deals and voluntary agreements instead of restrictions
Put Frank Cousins of the TGWU in cabinet
Relationship began to faulter after 1966
Quietly supported In Place of Strife
Prices and Incomes Policy
1966 Election
Snap election as Labour had an unworkably small majority of 4
Labour gained 50 seats
Showed revitalisation of working class support for Labour
Which faction on the right of the Tory party supported Rhodesia and South Africa’s discriminatory system?
Monday Club
Which fashion designer was influential in Sixties youth culture?
Mary Quant
