the sixties 1964-70 Flashcards
L18 - Why did Labour win the October 1964 election?
Conservatives began to lose popularity due to being associated with the establishment and scandals
Wilson created a modern image for his campaign relying on science and technology
Wilson is from a common background so is relatable
Stop Go is inconsistent under the conservatives
Youth are more independent and the conservative ideas are out of touch with them
They had a majority of 4 votes, 317. Only won because conservatives lost support and ti went to Liberals instead, their votes increased from 1959 election
What is Wilson’s ideology?
Promised a ‘dynamic first 100 days’
Wants change as PM
Scientific revolution, Britain is going to be forged in the white heat, need a leading stance by investing in science
He had left and right elements so unified the party. Left - resigned with Bevan and challenged Gaitskell for leadership in 1961. Right - served in gaitskells cabinet and supported the nuclear deterrent and to reform Trade unions
What are some economic problems in 1964?
Balance of payments £800mil
Unemployment 873,000 by 1963
Aimed to end stop go due to inflation
Lack of investment so nationalised industries suffer
Manufacturing decline, stagflation by 1963.
Behind economics of USA, Japan, west Germany
Changing from industrial to post industrial as manufacturing industries were shrinking and service and finance ones grew.
Solution 1: deflation
Wage freezes and increased interest rates to reduce spending to increase value of currency.
Helps BOP as exports are cheaper and imports dearer
Prices are cheaper so demand increases
Helps to combat inflation
But
Continues with Stop go
Unemployment
Solution 2: devaluation
Deliberate downward adjustment of a currency’s value
Helps BOP as exports are cheaper and imports dearer
Wages aren’t affected so demand stays
But
Deliberate adjustment done by government makes them look bad and have poor economic management
Labour did it in 1949 aswell so they look like the party of devaluation
What was the DEA and national plan 1965?
Wilson and Callaghan wanted to avoid both solutions.
So department for economic affairs headed by George Brown was set up. Devised National Plan signed by government, industry and TUs.
National plan aimed to stimulate production and exports by encouraging co-operation between these 3. Annual growth of 3.8%. End stop go
Why did NP and DEA fail by 1967?
Brown and DEA faced hostility from Treasury, another ministry.
Role of DEA overlapped with that of the Treasury so civil servants didn’t know who to listen to
Brown was compulsive, lacked consistency, alcoholic.
Trade unions became more left wing and difficult to work with through the NP. Strikes etc
Wilson was busy elsewhere to help
What was the Concorde?
English and French agreement in 1962. Share resources to develop a supersonic aircraft. Faster than the speed of sound. Exemplified white heat of technology
How was department of education and science strengthened?
More funding for expansion
1964, Robbins Report on higher education was implemented: 7 new universities by 1966, more scientists as government advisors
L19 - what were the results of the March 1966 snap election?
Labour won 364 seats majority of 98. Called snap election to increase this as they were unstable and could risk losing the government
How did Labour win the 1966 election?
Heath replaced Home in the opposition in 1965 but wasn’t as popular as Wilson. Labours manifesto of Time for Decision emphasised labour’s achievements in the last 18 months and focused on modernisation with a national transport plan and an ambitious house building programme, appealing to the public. The conservatives manifesto focused on old ideas, no new fresh ideas.
What is industrial relations?
Relationship between the government and trade unions
How did industrial relations decline?
Trade unions strikes and created economic problems for Wilson
What did James Callaghan introduce in 1966?
Prices and incomes policy, which limited price rises and wage increases to 3.5% to address inflation
What happened with government spending?
It was cut and taxes were increased. Frank cousins resigned and Labour left were disappointed and TUs hated it
Who went on strike on 16th may 1966 and what happened?
National Union of seamen. Aimed to get higher wages and reduce working week from 56 to 40 hours. Caused great disruption to shipping. The disruption of trade damaged Britain’s BOP, that exports worth £40mil were delayed by the strike as dead ships blocked ports. It provoked a run on the pound and threatened the 3.5% plan. Ended on 1 July 1966.
What were the consequences of the strike?
Wilson was critical of it and blamed communists for it who were trying to bring him down. His tactics split the Labour Party into left and centrists. Wilson had to go to the IMF for a loan in 1967 and blamed the industrial troubles for Britain’s increasing balance of payments deficit.
When was the pound devalued?
November 1967 it dropped by 14% to $2.40, whereas before it was $2.80
Wilson informed the public on TV and tried to justify it by saying the British pound is still the same in the country.
What does the devalued pound now mean?
Cheaper for countries to buy from Britain, exports
More expensive for Britain to buy from other countries, imports
So BOP will correct itself and Britain will make greater profit and be more productive
What were some arguments against devaluation?
Foreign travel is dearer
Imported goods will be more expensive and a potential shortage of goods
Makes government look incompetent
Why did devaluation damage labour?
Wilson delayed and dramatised by announcing on TV. If he did it earlier, could have been seen as a financial adjustment. Appears as a major failure economically and politically. James Callaghan resigned.
Wilson blamed trade unions for the economy.
What did Wilson apply to?
EEC in may 1967. Backed by conservatives and liberals but not by 36 Labour MPs. Rejected in November. It was a lukewarm application. Now they can’t freely trade.
Who replaced Callaghan as chancellor?
Roy Jenkins in 1967. He pursued a tight fiscal policy. Introduced deflationary methods to increase taxation and decrease government spending. By 1969, there was a BOP surplus of £387 mil, but it made government unpopular.
What was the 1969 white paper of ‘in place of strife’
Growing number of wildcat (strikes without union leaderships authorisation) strikes. Paper proposed that union members were balloted and that members would have to agree by a clear majority to have a legal strike. There would be a 28 cooling off period before a strike could happen so the government could prepare and an industrial relations court was set up to prosecute people. Popular with public but 50 Labour MPs were ready to rebel and Callaghan was.
What happened to the white paper?
Labour left are pro trade union (Labour is meant to support TUS) and don’t think this should happen and see it as a betrayal, and the purpose of strikes has been reduced. Callaghan said it was a conservative piece of legislation and doesn’t want the relations to worsen. Therefore, it never went ahead under labour.
L20 - what were the troubles?
A term used to describe a period of conflict in Northern Ireland that lasted about 30 years from late 1960s to Good Friday Agreement in 1998.
What were nationalists?
Generally catholic
See themselves as Irish
Want Ireland to be independent
Main nationalist parties are SDLP and Sinn Fein, same aims but different methods
SDLP- democratic, peaceful
Sinn fien - associated with IRA
Extreme nationalists are referred to as Republicans
What are the IRA and INLA?
Republican paramilitaries. A paramilitary group is an unofficial army, not funded by the government. Use violence to achieve aims
What are unionists?
Generally Protestant
Believe in a Union with GB and NI
Think a Union is good for their economy
Some fear a united ireland would lead to discrimination against Protestants
Ulster unionist party is the main party, committed to peaceful democratic methods
Democratic unionist party is extreme
Main paramilitary are Ulster defence association and Ulster volunteer force, use violence
Extreme unionists are loyalists
Orange marches in summer, after William of orange
Controversial
Origins of a divided Ireland
Between 1919-21, the Irish war of independence fought against British rule in Ireland. In 1922 Ireland was partitioned by Britain. 26 counties became the Irish free state, part of the British empire but had its own flag, administration. Remaining 6 counties formed Northern Ireland, under UK. In 1949, free state became Republic of Ireland
What was the problem with this division?
Northern Ireland was part of UK but geographically was in Ireland. Most in Ireland were catholic and most in north were Protestant. In the 6 counties, there were 1million Protestants and half a million catholics. In 1921, the parliament of Northern Ireland was set up, home rule or stormont. Over the following decades, the Protestants used their majority to dominate parliament and accused of discriminating against catholic minority through anti catholic laws
How did Ireland first become property of Ireland?
Lord of Ireland was also king of England after king Henry II in 1171 supported by pope invaded Ireland. Lordship became kingship in 1542, Henry 8th brought Protestantism to England, Ireland is catholic. Scotland, England and Ireland share the monarch, and in 1609, James I sends people there to gain control of Ulster, lots of rebellion here against England, successful in spreading Protestantism. Irish catholic confederation vs Scottish and English colonisers to resist Protestantism Catholics are successful until Cromwell, since he was a puritan and wanted to wipe them out
What happened in Williamite war?
James married a catholic and became catholic, over England Scotland and Ireland. He had a son, James Stuart, now in front of Mary Stuart for succession. Mary and her husband William of Orange overthrow James as Protestants, joint monarch. War of James and Irish vs William and England and Scotland. William won and Ireland is in Union from 1801
Ireland in the 1900s
1914, home rule bill passed for Ireland to have own parliament, not implemented due to WWI. Easter rising 1916 was an attempt to end Britain rule but failed. Sinn Fein won 73 seats in 1918, nationalists, want independence and they formed irelands parliament but this wasn’t internationally recognised. Home rule act 1920 divides north and south Ireland, parliament in Belfast and Dublin.
Anglo Irish treaty
Rename south to Irish free state, but still recognised as part of empire, currency flag etc is independent. Sinn Fein split to pro treaty vs anti treaty and caused a civil war
Ireland civil war
Irish free state are pro treaty and happy, anti treaty wanted more. Pro treaty won, 1937, referendum, cuts all British ties to the free state. If it got a majority the free state would no longer be in the empire. 56% in favour so it was now Ireland. Now caused conflict between catholic and Protestants of if NI belongs to Britain or Ireland
Who was Terence O’Neill?
1963, Unionist Prime Minister in north. Visited a catholic school and promised reforms for catholics and invited the Irish PM to Stormont in 1964. Nationalists were frustrated with how limited the reforms were and and Unionists didn’t want concessions for catholics.
What is NICRA?
Made due to nationalist frustration at lack of progress in 1967. Consists of moderate nationalists and unionists, left wing trade unionists, IRA. They wanted one man one vote, to end gerrymandering, (because unionists could control catholic areas by changing boundaries) council houses on a fair points system, end of discrimination in gov jobs.
How did unionists react to NICRA?
Interpreted it as a nationalist plot to overthrow Northern Ireland’s government. Paisley, unionist leader responded to Dungannon March Aug 1968 with 1500 unionists meeting 2000 nicra. No violence
First Derry March Oct 1968
Originally banned because it clashed with another march of Apprentice boys. RUC responded with force, water cannons on peaceful marchers
Who were Peoples Democracy and how did people respond?
Radical student offshoot of the NICRA. Unionists attacked the marchers. RUC didn’t intervene.
O neill resigned
Opposed by paisley, he couldn’t score a decisive majority.
Battle of Bogside August 1969
Apprentice boys Derry parade, petrol bombs from nationalists, 3 days. British government took control for safety, remained for 37 years, and troubles began.
L21 - Race Relations Acts 1965 and 1968
First legislation in the UK to address racial discrimination. Outlawed discrimination on the grounds of colour, race, ethnic or national origins in public places. The 1968 act made it illegal to refuse housing, employment or public services to a person on the same grounds.
Office of Ombudsman 1967
Established by the Parliamentary Commissioner Act 1967. The Ombudsman may investigate if a written complaint has been made to a MP, the member of public claims to have sustained injustice in consequence of maladministration.
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
Restricted UK citizenship to those born in the UK and their children or grandchildren. Those living in the ex-colonies without a direct family connection to the UK were no longer entitled to enter the country.
Open university 1969
Founded in 1969 with the ambition of providing access to higher education for people who had previously been unable or prevented from attending traditional universities.
L22 - what is permissive?
Allowing behaviour that others might disapprove of. The idea of a permissive society refers to a time of sexual liberation and a new openness and it is said there was a revolution in Britain in attitudes and behaviour in 1960s. Critics used it in a negative way due to a decline in moral standards
Who was Roy Jenkins and what did he do?
Labour MP that lead the way in liberalising legalisation. Home Secretary between 1965 and 1967. Liberal attitude. Replaced permissive society with civilised society. Callaghan continued his work showing Jenkins influence. Jenkins didn’t reflect the Labour Party as a whole as they didn’t mention moral issues on their manifesto and Wilson was suspicious of change. Jenkins encouragement of progressive social thinking helped to create an atmosphere in which reform became acceptable and ensured private members bills had enough time to be debated in parliament and he was present for them debates.
What is a private members bill?
A draft law, bill, which is introduced by a private member of parliament, not a government minister and it is not necessarily part of the governments planned legislation, usually done my backbench MPs.
What is free vote?
Individual MPs are encouraged to vote according do their own conscious rather than following an official party line, their own opinion.
What was the Obscene Publications Act 1959?
Stated literature in the interest of science, literature, art or learning should not be censorship. Before this, theatre, cinema and literature was all censored by government agencies and TV was under strict licensing laws.
Examples of literature not censored anymore
Lady Chatterly’s Lover. Wrote in 1924, banned as pornography until 1960, so had an obscenity trial
Fanny Hill, 1748. No government reaction until 1749, author was arrested with corrupting King’s subjects, so Cleland renounced the novel. Republished in 1963.
Last Exit to Brooklyn 1964. Covered taboo topics like homosexuality, domestic violence, trailer in 1967 and banned, reversed in 1968
What was the Oz School Kids Issue?
In 1970, editors put a notice in the magazine inviting school kids to edit an issue, 20 students joined. Highly sexualised Rupert Bear parody. In 1971 there was an obscenity trial, 3 editors on trial. They were convicted of obscenity and given sentences. Therefore, this highlighted there was confusion in society about what is obscene and not. Blurred line of what is acceptable.
How was cinema reformed?
British Board of Film Censors in 1912, categories films according to suitability. New wave films emerged in 1950s and 1960s but the next generation were more daring. Example- Alfie 1966, addressed attitudes of men towards women showing general culture shift
Theatre - Edward Bond’s play
Early Morning play. It was controversial, banned by Lord Chamberlain Office. It had a contorted version of Queen Victoria who was a lesbian in the play and her sons were conjoined twins, so it was scandalous play.
How did this banned play lead to 1968 Theatres Act?
George Strauss, backbench labour MP introduced a bill. He said it was unfair that playwrites did all this work and just because one individual doesn’t approve, it will be banned.
What do the theatres act allow?
Abolished censorship of the theatre and to amend the law in respect of theatres and performances. Had Roy Jenkins support which encouraged votes. Permitted nudity on stage. Law has caught up with social change and legitimised them
How was television reformed?
Shows like That was the week that was had 12 million views. Coronation street dealt with issues in society. Wednesday play 1964-70 had issues like abortion.
Mary Whitehouse Clean Up TV
May 1964, Mary whitehouse addressed a meeting by over 3000 people saint she was concerned by changes being made and said TV was corrupting minds, launched a campaign. She formed NVLA in 1965, a pressure group with 10,000 members. No impact though
Why were some for capital punishment?
Deterrence, crime will rise without
Life imprisonment is expensive
Only execute 4 a year on average
Victims families / unfair knowing the perp is in prison happily
Public will do lynch murders
Could be released from prison and do it again
Why were some against capital punishment?
Juries will be more likely to conict for murder
Our legal system makes mistakes, wrong person executed
Most murderers act in the moment rather than plan, no deterrence
Execution is uncivilised
What was the 1965 murder act?
Labour MP Sydney Silverman introduced a private members bill to suspends the death penalty, passed by 204 to 104. Suspended the death penalty for murder for 5 years to test it, permanent choice in 1969. Never used since August 1964. Ended for all crimes in 1998
Controversial cases that led to murder act
Timothy Evan’s 1950- hanged for killing wife and baby but they found out later he was innocent, huge public outcry
Ruth Ellis 1955- hanged for murder of her abusive boyfriend, he attacked her and caused her to miscarry, petition of 50,000 to ask for leniency, Home Secretary ignored
Derek Bentley 1953 - 18 year old, 16 year old friend Christopher Craig killed someone, Bentley said let him have it. Made him jointly responsible. Craig was underage so went to prison. Bentley was hanged.
Public reaction to murder act
Surgery in June 1966 suggested barely 20% of the population supported the abolition. Silverman was opposed in his constituency by a pro handing candidate
What was happening before abortion became legal ?
Society for the protection of unborn children and Abortion Law Reform Association campaigned for reform since 1945
Thalidomide Disaster 1959-62 deformed babies who didn’t survive
82 women died from backstreet abortions from 1958-60
Between 100,000 and 200,000 took place a year
35,000 a year in hospital due to complications
What was the abortion act 1967?
Liberal MP David Steel. Permitted the legal of a pregnancy within the first 28 weeks, needed consent of 2 doctors. Medical reason needed of mother or child t risk
Consequences of abortion act
70% of the public supported it
1968- 4 per 100 live births, 35,000
1975- 17.6 per 100 live births, 141,000
Abortion rose after the act even though they hoped it would fall with contraception and improved education
Sexual Offences Act 1967
In the early 1960s, attitudes towards homosexuality became more liberal, seen less as a crime but still as a sickness.
July 1967- legalised sexual acts in private between consenting male adults over 21. Lowered age of consent for heterosexual acts to 16.
Not all of the public agreed
Wilson did not support the bill
Changing attitudes to homosexuality from 1945-67.
After the war, there were fears about spies, and they were seen as a potential security risk, so the government enforced a law of a 2 year penalty in prison.
In 1957, a committee under Wolfenden reported in favour of decriminalisation, rejected by conservative government
Homosexual Law Reform Society campaigned for change
Early 1960s, attitudes were changing
1965 Daily Mail poll 63% didn’t believe it should be a crime but 93% agreed they needed treatment
Divorce Reform Act 1969
Before this, one partner had to admit some fault or guilt. In 1969, Bill Wilson (Labour) PMB. It allowed for a no fault divorce, so they could divorce if they’d live separately for 2 years and both wanted to divorce of 5 years if one did.
Matrimonial Property Act 1970
Acknowledged wife’s contribution to the marriage when diving home and property. Helped women status.
Consequence of divorce reform
In the first year, the total of divorces doubled to 100,000.
By 1981, it reached 150,000 and by 1985, it was calculated almost half of all marriages ended in divorce. Seems like a trial marriage since you can end it after 2 years
Dangerous Drugs Act 1967
Illegal to possess drugs like cocaine. Cocaine and heroine became 10x more prevalent in the first half of 1960s. Wootton Report of 1968 suggested legalising soft drugs like cannabis but it was rejected by Home Secretary Callaghan, showing labour was not a united party on social views and ideas of what is meant by permissive.
L23 - what was the new view on scientific developments?
Wilson aspired to replace the cloth cap with the white laboratory coat as the symbol of British Labour, an attempt to modernise
Technology was seen as the future
Scientists took executive positions in companies
Wilson set up Ministry of Technology to oversee the scientific revolution. Frank Cousins took over, who was a trade unionist, and he was put here to get the industrial workers and trade unions on board with revolution. Taken over by Tony Benn in 1966
How did domestic goods improve?
By 1971, 69% of homes had fridges, 64% had washing machines, 91% had TVs. New technology like vacuum cleaners and dishwashers.
Good industry developments
Focused on convenience. Supermarkets emerged which people could go to by car on one weekly shop. Lifestyle shift. Cereal, sliced bread, crisps. Amount spent on pre packaged goods rose from 20% in 1960 to 25% in 1970.
Fairy liquid etc became household staples
BT Tower development
Finished in 1964. Symbolised the scientific advancement and became a staple for tourists. Designed to improve TV and radio signals across the country.
Colour TV
First broadcast in 1967 to some areas and 1968 nationwide. By 1969, colour TVs reached 200,000 nd in 5 years they were outselling black and white sets
What did this TV culture shift cause?
Uniformity of culture- national topics of discussion
Politicians and presenters had to adapt
News became more immediate
23% less of leisure time from cinemas by 1969
Status of sportsmen, celebrities, pop starts raised
Press adapted, sensationalist news
Radio development
Transistor radios; ear phones etc independent listening
At the start of 1960s, BBC was the only licensed radio, with 4 stations
Teens turned to pirate radio like Radio Caroline from ships near Essex
They had pop music, BBC didn’t
1967- marine broadcasting act- made offshore radio transmission illegal
September 1967, radio one born
Radio development
Transistor radios; ear phones etc independent listening
At the start of 1960s, BBC was the only licensed radio, with 4 stations
Teens turned to pirate radio like Radio Caroline from ships near Essex
They had pop music, BBC didn’t
1967- marine broadcasting act- made offshore radio transmission illegal
September 1967, radio one born
The press development
Tabloid newspapers start to become more popular than broadsheet, entertaining.
The Sun in 1964 had progressive ideas and had exploited celebrity stories from 1969.
New magazines like Oz Magazine in response to youth culture
Advertising in the media
Adverts on TV after ITV was introduced. New industry that created jobs for people.
Money spent on advertising was £102 million in 1951 and £2.5 billion in 1978.
In 1956, tv advertising was 3.4% of all, by 1975 it was nearly 25%
Car development
Cars became more affordable like the Mini and ford cortina.
Caravanning accounted for 20% of all holidays by 1970
Impact of the car
1958- 300 supermarkets.
1972- 5.000 supermarkets, 60,000 smaller groceries closed
Distances from school and work changed, only 42% in Newcastle city in 1971. More lived in suburbs as cars let them travel further
Motorway developments
Britain had new motorways like A1 in 1961 and M5 in 1962. No speed limit or traffic made people want to go on them. Service stations built, like Watford Gap, the first, which offered restaurants with top cuisine. Service stations became a day out but this faded out
Mass tourism
Two week holidays to Spain cost low as £20 for 2 weeks
1964/ Britannia airways founder, serving holiday makers to Spain’s Canary Islands etc.
Passports- 580,000 in 1956. 980,000 in 1966. Coffee became more popular than tea
Fashion development
Fast fashion
By 1967, 50% of clothes manufactured in Britain were sold to people age 15-19
Clothes in 1960s were made to be disposed of due to trends
New synthetic fabrics made cheap and colourful clothes.
Lycra clothes held shape, crease resistant. PVC dyed well and alternative to leather
Medical developments
By the 1960s, a new generation was enjoying the benefits of polio immunity, penicillin and vitamins.
DNA structure discovered in 1963
1969 chemical structure of insulin which paved way for treatment of diabetes.
Contraceptive pill- became available on NHS at end of 1961 for married women. Family Planning Act 1967 allowed contraceptives and advice for all including single women.
By 1970, 19% of married women were using the pill as contraception and 9% of single women
L24 - why was the tripartite system coming under criticism?
Forcing students into certain areas which would affect the jobs they could get from age of 11.
Technical schools were underfunded.
11+ questions favoured middle classes as questions were based on their culture. They dominated grammar schools.
No other options, have to do 11+
Secondary modern pupils seen as failures
New comprehensive schools
Under 1944 education act, local education authorities were given responsibility for schools. LEAs were local councils responsible for education in their area. The Local Council of Greater London was controlled by Labour (local election) even before the general election, and they started to make comprehensive schools. Modelled on the grammar school
Comprehensive school consequences
By 1964, 1 in 10 pupils were in a comprehensive school, 10 x that of 1951
Labour won in 1964 and Tony Crosland was the Minister of Education from 1965 and sped up the process. He was very against grammar schools.
Wilson wasn’t at first but he changed his mind
What was the Circular?
Recommendation by Tony Crosland in July 1965 to local education authorities. He wanted to raise standards for all children in school, and make grammar schools level education available to more
Impact of the circular
Not a statutory requirement but many authorities responded. In 1966, the government made money for new school buildings conditional on the drawing up for plans of comprehensive schools.
By 1970, only 8 authorities hadn’t
1145 comprehensive schools, for 1 in 3 of all state educated pupils
What did some middle class parents turn to?
Wilson tried to justify the change by claiming they were grammar school education for all. Middle class parents went to direct grant schools or independent schools (fees).
Problem with the comprehensive school system
Students were admitted based on where they lived. They all therefore tended to be from the same backgrounds. Privileged families could move to new areas to get into the school they wanted. The teachers had competition for the affluence areas.
Ruth Kelly criticism in 2004
The focus was almost entirely on children or secondary age, mostly about 11+. No focus on primary.
Little agreement on what it meant to provide high quality education once they were in school.
Robbins Committee
Set up to expand higher education and science and technology courses as Britain was slipping behind in science and technology education. Set up in 1963. Britain lagged behind France, Germany and US, too many did arts subjects at university. Only 4% of the relevant age group were in university
Labours response to education issues
30 polytechnics (focus on STEM)
56 universities (some old ones expanding included)
New degrees opened eg architecture
Science degree places were increasing but still less than arts
2x as likely for a boy to go to uni than a girl
Open university beginning
Wilson saw as his greatest achievement as PM
Aimed to increase social mobility, embrace white heat of technology.
September 1969- OU headquarters set up in Milton Keynes. Studies began in January 1971.
What was the open university?
Used radio and TV to innovate distance learning, transmitting courses and lectures for students, the OU bought slots in TV at night
Recruited largely part time students with completely different social profile from traditional students like mature women
Helped raise self esteem of those who though they were failures
By 1980, 70,000 students and awarding more degrees than Oxford and Cambridge
Jennie Lee’s contributions
In March 1963, a Labour Party group proposed University of the Air. Jennie Lee was appointed as minister for arts, and she had to consider the project. She played a key role in the formation of the OU, she came from a working class family and only went to uni because of support from a trust. Combined Wilson’s enthusiasm for equal opportunities in education with modernisation and white heat. Lee wanted it to be respected
L25 - what is second wave feminism?
Frustration with the slow pace of change for women led to the emergence of a new style feminist movement in late 1960s. Wanted social and economic equality for women, as an attempt to abolish sexism.
Origins of the Women’s Liberation Movement
Sought to challenge the patriarchy and the idea that women were second class citizens. Influence from high profile feminists: Betty Friedan, American writer and activist - The Feminine Mystique is credited with sparking the second wave feminism, it argued women lose their identities and were not being fulfilled in their roles as housewives. Education, advertisers, magazines reinforce the image of women. In 1966, she set up the National Organisation of Women to campaign for equality. Germaine Greer - women are taught to hate themselves
Impact of feminism - Women’s Liberation Conference
In 1969, The Women’s National Co-ordination Committee was made, led to first Women’s liberation conference in 1960 with 600 activists attending. 4 demands- equal pay, free contraception and abortion, equal education and jobs, 24 hour free childcare. During this time, the men took the childcare responsibility while the women spoke
Impact of feminism - Miss World Contest 1970
Held at Albert Hall 1970, the host Bob Hope was pelted with flour and smoke bombs. They were angry about injustices and the women in the contest were being judged for their looks, so they disrupted to make an impact, questioning why you had to be beautiful to be noticed. Other groups targeting them attended too.
Successes of the feminist movement
The Equal Pay and Matrimonial Property Act in 1970
Women had more choices, they could choose when or if they wanted to have children
Miss World contest brought feminism to th attention of 100mil globally
Failures of the feminist movement
Generally regarded as a minority of affluent middle class lefties
Equal pay was left voluntary until 1975, so women could have been removed from jobs in this time
By 1970, women formed 35% of the workforce but only 63.1% payed of men’s
Only 5% reached manager posts
Only 28% in higher education
What is the swinging sixties?
The generation gap continued to widen with the young taking on new values, styles and behaviours. It was about music, fashion, sec and wealth. It was a youth driven cultural revolution
What are skinheads?
Descended from rockers. Mid 1960s. Characteristic by their shaven heads braces and doc martens. Mainly working class teenagers
What are hippies?
Descended from mods. The movement came from america in 1967, through TV and radio. Clothes reflected cultures of India and Afghanistan. Coloured cottons, shawls, ponchos, kaftans, second hand accessories. They rejected social conventions and the establishment. Flower power. Mainly middle class teenagers
Fashion - mid 1960s
Boys
Rockers style
Tight fitting suits
Chelsea boots
1963- Beatles jackets
Coloured suits, individualistic
Girls
Pale face makeup, eye liner and mascara
Lace tights or knee high socks
T Bar shoes or mid calf boots
Mini skirt at mid thigh by 1967
Geometric haircuts of symmetric or asymmetric fringes. Long straight hair
Childlike armaments eg pinafore
Fashion - late 1960s
Boys
Anything goes approach (took drugs)
Military style jackets
Frilled dress shirts
Rainbow velvet jeans / hip hugging trousers
Caftan
Girls
Afro hair - frizzy, curly elaborate
Variety of skirt lengths- midi or maxi
How did popular music led the youth to having a separate identity?
Tune into offshore stations or radio 1. TV responded to demand by programs like Top of The Pops 1964 to spread latest trends. Cheap record players and records made music available to all.
Rolling Stones 1962
Beatles 1962
Young adopt their behaviour and style from them
What were the 2 radical youth alliances?
Radical student alliance- formed in 1966 to protest against war and student issues like accommodation.
Vietnam solidarity campaign, 1968 which overshadowed CND
Student protests over Vietnam
1965- Vietnam war teach ins at the London School of Economics and Oxford Uni
1967- Vietnam solidarity campaign organise demonstration
1968, 17th March - battle of grosvenor square. Violent scenes at an anti Vietnam war demonstration in London near American embassy. Led by Tariq Ali and Vanessa Redgrave
LSE troubles
In 1966, the London school of economics appointed Dr Walter Adams as a director, he’d formally been the principal of the university college of Rhodesia, a previous British colony in Africa. Adam’s had links with Ian Smiths racist regime in rhodesia. Student union accused him of being an accessory to racism. Followed by a series of sit ins and the daffodil march in March 1967 down Fleet Street
Protests of 1968 globally
USA - Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther king assassination, and the Vietnam war, protests grew from political disillusionment and the capitalist democracy
Czechoslovakia - Prague Spring, capitalist democracy and socialism with a human face
France - over 1 million students and workers fought battles in Paris, tanks were brought in, close to political revolution
L26 - what were some impacts of immigration?
In 1961, 130,000 new commonwealth immigrants entered UK
Associated with drug taking and prostitution
In 1956 London transport took on nearly 4000 employees mainly from Barbados
In 1965, Labour tightened controls over immigration to needing vouchers to enter, only 8500 a year
80% said too many immigrants in UK in 1962
Situation of immigration by 1965
Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1962 had done little to ease racial tensions. A surgery in London 1965 showed
1 in 5 objected to working with black or Asians
50% said they’d refuse to live next door to a black person
9 out of 10 disapproved of mixed marriages
1965 Race Relations Act
Forbade discrimination in public places on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins. Complaints were to be referred to the Race Relations Board (a court that would judge from evidence the person who was accused).
Impact of race relations act
In principle it was progressive but was problematic in practice. Didn’t include discrimination in housing and employment and incitement to racial hatred was not made a criminal offence. The RRB didn’t force witnesses to attend hearings, had 982 complaints in first year but 734 were dismissed by lack of evidence.
How did racial tensions increase?
National front- 1967, Extreme right wing political party; they believed in the repatriation of black immigrants and national autonomy. In the 1970s, they won about 3% of the vote. Racist attitudes were strongest among the working classes as they thought immigration led to competition for housing and employment. In late 1960s, bengali community were subject to a campaign of violence that led to certain places being no go areas
Influx of Kenyan Asians
They were forced out by the Kenyan leader Jomo Kenyatta who enforced a policy of Africanisation (anyone not considered African to leave) in 1968. About 1000 Kenyan Asians came to Britain every month, and when the government tried to limit it, 13,000 moved quickly before the ban. They were before able to come here based on CIA 1962.
Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968
Act restricted UK citizenship to those who had at least 2 British parent or grandparent born in UK. This meant most white immigrants could enter but Kenyan Asians couldn’t, 200,000 were left adrift. 35 Labour, 15 conservatives and all liberal MP vote against.
Race relations act 1968
Banned racial discrimination in employment, housing, insurance and other services. RRB given stronger powers. But it wasn’t successful since they only addressed 10% of complaints, number was low because of little faith in fair system, employers could discriminate against non whites in the interests of racial balance, couldn’t complain against police
Enoch Powell and Rivers of Blood speech
Conservative MP for Wolverhampton. Gave a speech in 1968 in response to race relations act- mass immigration and anti-racist laws meant immigrants had more rights than white people, multi-culturally would lead to greater segregation, government should offer grants to non- whites immigrants to return home.
Reactions to Rivers of Blood
Edward Heath sacked him, Powell became an unofficial figurehead for racist Britons, attracted working class voters in 1970. Outrage on both sides of argument and some said he risked his job to say what ordinary people think. 1,000 London dockers and porters marched to Westminster to support him. Over 70% supported his udeas
Campaigns under Labour and Conservative
In 1964, Labour lost a safe seat in Smethwick, conservative MP won who was anti-immigration. Their slogan was Keep Britain White, so some say this swung the election in favour of Conservatives.
Evidence of multiculturalism
In 1964, Notting Hill Carnival became annual. Asian corner shops and new food takeaways introduced. Youth culture drew from ethnic communities in music and fashion, hippie movement.
L27 - 3 main strands of British foreign policy
Commonwealth and Empire
Special relationship with America
Europe EEC
Britain’s foreign policy objectives of 1964-70
Decolonisation, continue this peacefully.
Membership of EEC
Continue with anti-Soviet alliances and special relationship
Increase status on an international stage
How had Wilson’s views for foreign policy changed by 1968?
Need to be more involved in Europe since their security lies there, collective security
They can’t afford the role of world police man anymore, economic problems are influencing foreign policy decisions.
NATO needs to be connected with Europe, bridge is Britain
Challenges for Wilson and foreign policy
By 1964, the wind of change had brought independence to 18 new commonwealth states, welcomed across most of Africa. Wilson government wished to continue this decolonisation and reduce their military commitments in east of Suez. But the process was hard as there was a good deal of public opinion which believed Britain still had an important world role (patriotic desire)
How was Rhodesia a challenge?
Some southern places in Africa did not welcome the wind or change speech. In 1963, Rhodesia broke into 3 states, Southern Rhodesia, Malawi and Zambia ( last 2 were granted independence). Southern Rhodesia wanted independence but Britain made it clear this couldn’t happen while the white population dominated politically. They refused idea of one person one vote and majority rule. Ian Smith became PM in 1964 and declared in 1965 UDI (Unilateral Declaration of Independence), without approval so most countries didn’t recognise it, considered illegal, didn’t believe in a black majority rule there
How did Wilson respond to Rhodesia challenges?
There was pressure on the government to secure democracy in these countries. The UDI was a problem as it was a colonial issue with racial undertones. Wilson was limited by the economy to solve.
Step 1- diplomacy, December 1966, some progress made but nothing changed
Step 2- sanctions, oil sanctions 1967 but didn’t work as Rhodesia got oil from countries like South Africa, and big oil companies didn’t want to lose profit.
Step 3- diplomacy, October 1968 but smith was unmoved
Consequence of Rhodesia problems in Africa
In 1970, it declared itself a republic, breaking all ties with Britain and commonwealth. Black people had as few rights as those living under apartheid in USA. No representation
Consequence of Rhodesia problems in Britain
Conservative party- some formed The Monday Club on January 1 1961 by 4 young Conservative Party members (it is a faction). It brought supporters of white Rhodesia and South Africa. Formed as they criticised decolonisation and wind of change speech, backed Ian Smith. By 1970, it had 18 MPs in support and Enoch Powell too, 2000 members
Commonwealth was upset by British failures
Labour left upset
Significance of Rhodesia
Caused a political debate in Britain between people who supported imperialism and people who supported decolonisation
Direct correlation between problems in colonies and immigration
Rhodesia aren’t listening to Britain. Shoes they don’t feel threatened and so Britain are losing world power. Could influence other countries to do the same.
How was Biafra a challenge?
When Britain first colonised Nigeria, it was an area made up of several different self-ruled ethnic groups. They merged them together and called the land Nigeria.
When Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the ethnic groups clashed and caused a civil war. 30% are Hausa, 20% are Yoruba, 10% are Igbo.
Elections in 1964- Hausa north won and Igbo south launched a military coup on 15 Jan 1966 it was quickly defeated though.
How did the problem in Biafra continue to develop?
30th May 1967- Igbo south declared itself independent from the rest of the country, the Republic of Biafra it became.
Caused a civil war which lasted 2 and a half years until 1970 causing 1 million deaths
People around the world were horrified to see starving kids, putting Wilson’s government into a difficult position, pressure to intervene when it’s meant to be a peaceful process
The government sided with the real Nigerian gov, with military and economic aid, argued this was the best way to bring stability there, despite Criticisms.
The media and others supported the Biafra leader.
Biafra was eventually defeated
Consequences of these problems in Africa for Britain
Anger towards Wilson government, could lose power in election
Divisions in politics
Loss of world power and influence for Britain
Britain’s lack of influence in Rhodesia could cause other countries to do the same
Economically weakened by aiding Nigeria in same year as devaluation
Fear other countries would do what Nigeria did
Racially motivated foreign policy, Britain accused of racism
Timeline of withdrawal in the east of suez
Largely economically driven
1964- decided to reduce Britain’s military commitments. Healy, minister of defence started a process of spending cuts to bring defence spending down to £2bil by 1970
1966- Defence Review announced troops were to be withdrawn from Aden, Malaysia and Singapore (strikes, BOP issues, devaluation).
1967- wilson still wanted a world role so gave up nuclear deterrent, committed to Polaris deployment, want to upgrade it in 1967
1968- process of saving on defence sped up in 1968 because of devaluation. Troops withdrawn from Aden, and the other countries by 1971.
End of a long term process of cutting imperial obligations. Offers from Saudi Arabia and other states to fund British presence were turned down
