The significance of the EU as an international global actor

Question 1

Structurally, the EU can be considered a global actor

Answer 1

• Pres. Donald Tusk appears like a central authority or clear figurehead for the EU.
• Maastricht Treaty (1992) established a common foreign and security policy, providing the EU with the means to coordinate a united position in international relations.
• Lisbon Treaty (2007) provided the EU with a legal identity and created the permanent positions of President of the Council and High Commissioners for Foreign Affairs - holds the authority and leadership positions to better represent itself in international relations.
• Growing structural power - it is represented on the WTO, G7 and the G20.

Question 2

Constraints affecting the EU’s structural power as a global actor

Answer 2

• Not a superpower - lacks a central authority or a clear figurehead.
• Members doesn’t share a coherent global vision - difficult to achieve cohesive policies and a European perspective on important global issues (since Foreign/Defence is subject to the national veto) - exacerbated by its continued expansion.
• Unable to exert influence on China to improve its human rights record.
• Brexit is damaging, especially when seeing the EU as a counterbalance to the USA as the UK is a key EU power (strong economy + assertive policy). Its’ special relationship with the USA has helped bolster the EU’s overall influence internationally (clear that the USA wants to have a US-UK alliance instead).

Question 3

Economically, the EU can be a global actor

Answer 3

• Growing economic unity and strength has developed its’ geostrategic power - wields considerable influence as an economic superpower.
• Negotiated as an equal partner with the USA over the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership.
• 2017 = EU and Japan established the largest free-trade zone in the world, representing ⅓ of the world’s GDP.
• Collectively fined Apple and Google for improper trade practices.
• As a major investor in the developing world, it can incorporate requirements for human rights protection and democracy in their trade deals e.g the Cotonou Agreement with 79 developing countries.
• The advantages of joining the single market have encouraged peace in the Balkans, as aspiring members must commit to peace, democracy and human rights.

Question 4

Constraints affecting the EU’s economic influence as a global actor

Answer 4

• 2008 financial crisis hit Europe hard (particularly PIIGS states), demonstrating the EU is not immune to fluctuating global markets - expensive bailouts.
• Expansion means an economic strain on EU countries because newer members tend to have weaker economies.
• Not all members accepted the euro - Germany has benefited from having a devalued currency, making its exports more appealing to the global market, while other countries like Italy (would’ve ordinarily used devaluation) were prevented.
• Significant disagreements over policies like CAP due to its membership size.

Question 5

Politically, the EU can be considered a global actor

Answer 5

• In 2016, Turkey agreed to cooperate with the EU in tackling the migrant crisis in return for easier visa entry into the EU for Turkish citizens and an acceleration of Turkey’s application for EU membership.
• It has soft power - provided global leadership at UN climate change summits e.g Paris by setting ambitious carbon-reduction targets. As the world’s largest provider of overseas aid, the EU has considerable moral influence.

Question 6

Constraints affecting the EU’s political influence as a global actor

Answer 6

• Impingement of sovereignty, esp. with the Brexit 2016 referendum. Fuels debates around the freedom of movement, particularly in the wake of the European migrant crisis.
• President Trump’s ‘America First’ ideology reduces the EU’s global influence - cannot claim to be the US’s closest ally.
• Only has observer status at the UN + no seat on the Security Council.
• Democratic deficit - as citizens of democratic countries, EU citizens should vote over its more supranational elements and institutions but the Parli is the only elected body but it’s not a decision-making body - problematic as the EU promotes liberal values of democracy and freedom - damaged its soft power.

Question 7

Constraints affecting the EU’s military power as a global actor

Answer 7

• Employs forces primarily for humanitarian intervention, but it does not have a central standing army - INFLUENCE IGNORED in cases like Syrian Civil War and the invasion of Ukraine.
• Owns a rapid reaction force but not its own nuclear deterrent or aircraft carriers - realists argue this significantly reduces the EU’s capacity for global influence and outreach.
• Reliant on NATO (similar membership) for defence - led some to see the EU as the USA’s military puppet as highlighted in the war in former Yugoslavia, and especially Kosovo, when NATO stepped in to end the conflict.
• Considered weak for allowing the largest genocide to occur since WWII to happen in Europe.

Question 8

Other factors reducing the EU’s possibility of behaving as a global actor

Answer 8

• Doesn’t share strategic objectives and diplomatic loyalties - no sufficient sense of identity to present clear policy on regional issues: Libyan revolution (2011), the Russian annexation of Crimea (2014) and the Syrian Civil War (2011) and no EU intervention against Islamism in Syria, although member states like France and the UK have taken military action.
• Ability to promote liberal democratic values is constrained by the rise of European nationalist and populist parties.