The Self

Question 1

In defining the self, what are some aspects who have to consider?

Answer 1

• Cognitive construction (mental representation)
• Social construction (interactions/experiences with others)

Question 2

What age do you think this self-description come from? “I’m good at art; I’m creative. Most of the other girls say that I’m nice. I have two girls who are my really good friends. I’m not very good at sports, like I don’t do well at baseball, soccer, or gymnastics.”

Answer 2

9-year-old

Question 3

What age do you think this self-description come from?
“I have a dog, a cat, and two hamsters. I can colour really well, and paint really well. My room has dinosaurs in it. I always win at miniature golf! I have brown hair and I’m really strong. I can lift this chair!”

Answer 3

3-year-old

Question 4

What age do you think this self-description come from? “I’m pretty complicated, actually. Most people don’t understand me, especially my parents! I’m sensitive, moody, affectionate, and sometimes self-conscious. When I’m with my friends, I’m affectionate and fun.”

Answer 4

14-year-old

Question 5

When do infants (birth-3 years) show self-concept? What are some of the critical time periods?

Answer 5

Infants show some idea of self-concept, e.g., the rooting reflex
~18 months: Infants can pass the rouge test (react to the mark on the mirror)
~2 years: recognize self in pictures, label self using own name or “me”, use category labels for self (“categorical self”)

Question 6

What self-concepts do children have during early childhood?

Answer 6

~3-6 years:
Children can describe self, but focus on concrete, observable features
They are unrealistically positive, e.g., I am very strong, I always win; related to egocentrism, not comparing to other people

Question 7

Self concept during Middle childhood?

Answer 7

~6-11 years:
More integrated: begin to refer to global characteristics, e.g., I am creative
- More realistic and balanced, e.g., I am not really good at sports
- Linked to actual competencies/evaluation, taking into consideration other people’s perspectives

Question 8

Self-concepts during Adolescence?

Answer 8

~11-18/19 years
- Nuanced view of self (harder in early adolescence years)
- Understand role of situations, context, and perspective
- More abstract and psychological, not entirely based on other people’s point of views, can refer to inner self
- Begin to think about the future, possible selves
- Begin to develop coherent/integrated self (in later stage of adolescence)

Question 9

What are some common behavior or beliefs seen in adolescence?

Answer 9

1. False self behavior: intentionally presents a false impression to others, e.g., pretending to be a cool girl to play video games with dating partners, a studious student with parents
2. Personal fable: the belief that one’s own experience is unique and novel
   “How would you know? You haven’t been through what I have!”
3. Imaginary audience: the belief that everyone else is focused on you, e.g., thinking about what clothes to wear because others may care

Question 10

What are some influences on self-concept besides age?

Answer 10

1. Cognitive development
2. Parents - warmth & support, family narratives
3. Peers - evaluation
4. Culture - individualistic vs. collectivistic, one is more focused on oneself’s internal traits whereas the other is more concerned with relationality; Chinese children do less private descriptions, more collective and public descriptions, more specific rather than abstract descriptions

Question 11

How do people’s self-esteem fluctuate over lifetime?

Answer 11

It starts high, decline through childhood, mixed findings during adolescence (may be due to individual differences)

Question 12

What are some influences on self-esteem during adolescence?

Answer 12

1. Gender
   - Girls show more decline in self-esteem over adolescence than boys
2. Race
   - Black youths have higher self-esteem, Asian American children have the lowest self-esteem (may be due to cultural difference)
3. Approval of others, from parents, peers, and teachers
4. Societal standards
   - Physical attractiveness (the most important factor)
5. Culture
   - Different meanings of self-esteem across various cultures

All of the above add up to intersectionality of an individual

Question 13

Teens believe they will have harder lives than their parents demonstrate which example?

Answer 13

Personal fable
The idea that teenagers are unique and self-focused

Question 14

What impact does self-esteem have on development?

Answer 14

High self-esteem is related to better in school, better well-being. Lower self-esteem is correlated with emotional and behavioral problems.
However, the direction is unknown.
AND self-esteem movement is not effective in boosting academic performance

Question 15

How to define identity?

Answer 15

A description or definition of self, a theory of oneself
The extent to which individuals feel secure about themselves

Question 16

According to Erikson, what is a big crisis for adolescents?

Answer 16

Identity vs. role confusion

Question 17

What is psychosocial moratorium?

Answer 17

Time in which individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles. e.g., university historically, study abroad

Question 18

According to James Marcia, how should teenagers figure out their identity?

Answer 18

1. Exploration: test out different roles, different friend groups
2. Commitment: committing to an identity and saying this is who I am

Question 19

What are four identity statuses according to James Marcia?

Answer 19

Young teens: Identity diffusion, haven’t explored nor committed

Identity foreclosure: haven’t explored but committed, “this is who I am because I have been told so”

Moratorium: actively exploring but haven’t committed

Identity achievement: tested out and committed

Question 20

What are some problems associated with identity diffusion?

Answer 20

• Higher levels of behavioral and emotional problems, difficulties with relationships
• Likely to report low levels of parental warmth/support

Question 21

What are the positive and negative sides of identity foreclosure?

Answer 21

• Teens tend to show low anxiety and general life satisfaction
  Downside:
• More common with overly protective or controlling parents
• Associated with higher levels of prejudice, inflexibility, need for social approval, lower sense of autonomy

Question 22

What happens when teenagers stay in the moratorium status for too long?

Answer 22

• High levels of anxiety, conflict with authority
• Depends on the length of exploration, amount of rumination about exploration

Question 23

What are the benefits of achieving the identity achievement status?

Answer 23

• Associated with high achievement, maturity, intimacy
• AGENCY: a sense of control and responsibility for one’s own actions

Question 24

In relation to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, how might broader culture influence identity development?
How might time period influence identity development?

Answer 24

Culture:
Collectivistic (relationship with other people) vs. Individualistic (self-achievement)
Socioeconomic pressure, or cultural pressure on teens to figure out who you are by the age of xx.
Not everyone has the same opportunity to explore

Time period:
Role of social media and Internet
Opportunities for exploration may be different many years ago as compared to now

Question 25

What is the difference between ethnic-racial identification and ethnic-racial identity?

Answer 25

Identification refers to how someone labels their race or ethnicity. e.g., Latinx, Vietnamese, White

Identity refers to a person’s thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings

Identification seems to develop during childhood whereas questions of identity seem to be heightened in adolescence.

Question 26

Describe the process of realization of ethnic-racial identity

Answer 26

Childhood: unexamined ethnic identity
Experiences/comments trigger us to realize the difference
Adolescence: exploration
Resolution

Question 27

What is affirmation or private regard? How is it beneficial?

Answer 27

How good/bad a person feels about being part of their ethnic/racial group. It tends to be protective factor for marginalized racial groups.

Question 28

What is public regard?

Answer 28

How positively/negatively a person believes other people view their ethnic/racial group

Question 29

How do you define centrality and salience?

Answer 29

Centrality refers to how important a person’s ethnic/racial group is to their identity
Salience is how important a person feels their ethnic/racial group is to a particular situation, e.g., being a white person among a group of white people or being a white person who is the racial minority in a room can make a person think differently about their identity

Question 30

What are the four ethnic-racial identity statuses? What are the two dimensions?

Answer 30

1. Assimilated (identify with majority culture but not minority culture), has been prioritized over colonial ages
2. Bicultural (positive about both heritage culture and majority culture), often associated with positive outcomes, but not always
3. Marginalized (not fitting into neither identities)
4. Separated (not wanting to identify with majority culture, identify with minority culture) , may be ideal for indigenous population

Two dimensions are: Identify with majority culture and identify with minority culture

Question 31

What are some positive outcomes of ERI for adolescents and young adults?

Answer 31

1. Lower levels of depressive symptoms
2. Higher self-esteem
3. Positive academic outcomes
4. Protection in the face of discrimination, protect from maladjustment in mental health, academic, social, etc.

Question 32

What is ethnic racial socialization? In which groups is it commonly taught?

Answer 32

It is where children are taught about race (typically by parents), much more common in marginalized groups
Common themes: understanding/valuing ones’ culture, dealing with racism, succeeding in mainstream society

Question 33

What influence does school diversity or segregation have on ERI?

Answer 33

The more diverse, the more liking towards own racial group

Question 34

What are affinity groups?

Answer 34

Groups created at school as an opportunity to discuss shared ethnic racial experiences.

Question 35

What are some key points of the Umana’s paper (2018)? The intervention program

Answer 35

Intervention designed to boost ERI exploration and resolution
- intent to improve mental health
Curriculum designed for students to explore own ethnic-racial background, learn about peers’ backgrounds, and discuss issues of race and ethnicity within school setting.
Curriculum includes:
1. Unpacking identity
2. Group differences: within and between
3. Stories of Our Past
4. Symbols, Traditions, and Rites of Passage
5. My family history
6. Photo processing and storyboards
7. Ethnic-Racial Identity as a Journey
8. Grand Finale

Study Results: Intervention led teens do more exploration, feelings of more resolution
After a year, the teens had higher self-esteem, lower depressive symptoms, and higher grades

Question 36

What does ERI look like for multiracial youth?

Answer 36

• ERI development may be particularly challenging
• Less likely to report positive ERI, less ERI centrality
• Changes over time