the rule of tsar nicholas II Flashcards
1
Q
what are tsars? how did they exercise their authority?
A
- the leaders of imperial russia - absolute ruler - autocratic
- believed power came from god
- three official bodies through which they exercised authority:
- imperial council: honorary advisers directly responsible to tsar
- cabinet of ministers - ran various govt depts
- senate - supervised operation of law
- bodies ot very powerful - appointed + did not govern only gave advice
- no authority over tsar - his word final in everything
2
Q
what was nicholas II like as a ruler? what were his attitudes?
A
- understood role as absolute monarch - unable and unwilling to adapt to rapidly changing + modernising society
- mystical reverence to power entrusted in him prevented him from from listening + following advice of politicians + professionals - instead only surrounded himself with those he trusted
- charm + simplicity - but unable to overcome attitudes imbibed at early age: belief in absolute monarchy, chauvinism, anti-semitism + militarism
- distrustful - he distrusted bureaucracy
3
Q
how was russia politically backward?
A
- tsar’s power showed how little russia had advanced politically compared to other european nations
- all major ones had some form of democracy
- criminal offence to oppose the tsar/govt 1894 - no parliament although parties existed - had no legal right to exist
4
Q
what were the reactionary + repressive measures of alexander III? did repression stop liberal ideas from seeping through?
A
- centralised control of police under the minister of interior
- a rise in censorship
- tighter control of the zemstva (provincial governments) + reduction of peasant representation in these organisations
- no, but they could not be openly expressed - supporters of reform/change had to go underground
- in 19th century grown up a wide variety of secret societies dedicated to reform/revolution - frequently infiltrated by okhrana - raids, arrests, imprisonment etc reg occurrences
5
Q
what did few reforming tsar’s do the modernise the country?
A
- alexander II - emancipation of the serfs 1861
- but did not include extension of political rights
6
Q
what did the denial of freedom of speech lead political activists to?
A
- extremism
- 1881 alexander II bombed by terrorist group ‘the peoples will’
7
Q
was russia without industry? what are the negatives of it?
A
- no, urals region produced considerable amounts of iron
- chief western cities, Moscow + St petersburg, extensive textile factories
- most villages had workshop for making iron tools + most peasant homes engaged in some form of cottage industry (producing wooden, wollen, flaxen goods) - supplement their income from farming
- these activities small scale
- underdeveloped transport system limited chances of industrial expansion + absence of effective banking system (found it hard to raise capital on large scale)
8
Q
how was agriculture failing?
A
- it was backward - many peasants still using wooden ploughs that limited productivity
- even though 4/5 peasants - thriving agricultural economy failed to develop
- arable farming restricted to black earth region
9
Q
how was there a lack of economic productivity compared with international rivals?
A
- up to 1894 industrialisation - average annual economic growth rate of 8%
- much of this achieved through small-scale enterprise
10
Q
what were the social problems regarding the peasants?
A
- large pop - not enough fertile land to go around
- under terms of emancipation decree 1861 - ex-serfs entitled to buy land - but price too high - due to shortage of farming territory + govt taxation on land sales to compensate landowners for losses caused by emancipation
11
Q
did the peasants’ land bank help peasants to buy land?
A
- peasants’ land bank (1883) helped to buy land - consequently, peasants who did manage to purchase - found themselves burdened with large mortgage repayments (them + families generations to pay)
12
Q
what were the social issues relating to the urban workers?
A
- wages generally low
- working conditions poor
- high number of deaths from accidents + work-related health problems
- living conditions appalling - no privacy/ shared rooms
13
Q
what did the governing class think of the peasantry?
A
- deeply ingrained prejudice in granting rights to the people
- believed dangerous ‘dark masses’ should be held in check by only severe repression
- fear + contempt - sheer size as social class + coarse ways
- various attempts to educate peasants (predominantly uneducated + illiterate) such efforts undermined by fear among ruling classes any improvement of conditions may threaten privileges
- ‘safe ignorance’ - raise educational standards highly dangerous socially + politically
14
Q
what were the social issues regarding health?
A
- 1891 famine resulted in death over 350k people - long-lasting impact
- industrialisation led to urbanisation - associated public health problems (poor housing, lack of sanitation, inadequate health supplies) - spread of diseases - esp cholera
15
Q
how were peasants subjected to restrictions?
A
nvc restrictions in commune/mir they lived
- affected farming + personal freedom
- ex cant leave village without permission
16
Q
what were kulaks?
A
rich peasants who hired labour + owned animals
17
Q
how were the governments priorities unbalanced?
A
- cost of maintaining the army + navy accounted on average for 45% of annual expenditure
- only 4% devoted to education
18
Q
what were the obstacles to modernisation?
A
- ‘westerners’ - wanted russia to adopt best features of advanced countries in western europe
- ‘slavophiles’ - regarded western values as corrupting + urged russia should be preserved - gorifying in slav culture and traditions
- autocratic structure - change only from tsar - no representative institutions
19
Q
what was the local government reform of alexander II?
A
- network of elected rural councils (zemstva) - although not truly democratic - some sort of representative democracy - hope for desires of extension of political rights
20
Q
what were alexander II’s legal reforms?
A
- relaxation of controls over press + universities
- greater freedom of expression encouraged development of intelligentsia
- administrative + legal changes to stop corruption/injustice
21
Q
what was the intelligetsia?
A
- cross-section of educated + more enlightened members of russian society
- wanted to see nation adopt progressive changes along western lines
22
Q
why did alexander reform? what did he do after being fearful of going too far in reforming?
A
- lessen opposition
- attract support of intelligentsia
- abandoned policies + returned to tsarist tradition of oppression
- still an autocrat
23
Q
what prepared intelligentsia + critics of the regime to challenge it further?
A
- tsar nicholas - upbringing + education made him suspicious of change
- continued repressive policies he inherited - further angering
24
Q
who was Pobedonostsev?
A
- tutored nicholas
- chief minister in russian govt (1881-1905)
- procurator of the synod (governing body of orthodox church
25
Q
what were Pobedonostsev’s beliefs?
A
- conservative - distaste for liberalism + democracy
- dismissed idea of representative government
- devoutly religious - venerated russian orthodox church
- anti-semitic views - behind many of pogroms (fierce persecutions often involving wounding/killing jews + destruction of property)
26
Q
what were pobodonostsev’s achievements?
A
- helped prepare judicial reforms for tsar
- became an adviser + writer on russian law
- role as chief procurator allowed him to advice tsar on religious matters + influence church + educational + social policies
27
Q
what was russification? when did it begin?
A
- a policy
- severely enforced method of restricting influence of non-russian national minorities within empire by emphasising superiority of all things russian
- russian to be declared first language (all legal proceedings + administration in russian)
- public office closed for those not fluent
- aim: impose russian ways + values on all peoples
- started by alexander II - continued by nicholas
28
Q
who suffered from russification? why?
A
- discrimination against non-russians became more vindictive in 1890s
- nationalities who suffered the most: baltic germans, the poles, the finns, armenians + ukranians
- state interference in their education, religion + culture became widespread + systematic
29
Q
who were the greatest victims of russification? why?
A
- jews
- over 600 measures introduced - social, political econ restrictions
- most onerous - requirement to live in discrete districts/ghettoes
- anti semitism - deeply ingrained - group called ‘black-hundreds’ notorious for attacks on jews
- during reign of nicholas - number of pogroms increased sharply - proof of regimes encouragement of terrorising them
30
Q
what was the response to russification?
A
- opposition became more organised + number of political parties ranging from moderate reformers to violent revolutionaries came into being
- frustrated many political + national groups
- alienated mass of 5 million jews - many fled in desperation to west with hatred of tsardom
- 1890s large influx of jews into various anti-tsarist movements
- 1897 - they formed own revolutionary ‘bund’/union - troubles for tsarist govt
31
Q
which parties were marxist?
A
SDs based their ideology on writings of karl marx - believing the proletariat could be ‘educated’ to overthrow russian autocracy by way of a revolution
32
Q
what is marxism?
A
- german philosopher ‘marx’ wrote manifesto for it
- encourages workers to seize power by revolution
- ruling class - those who owned means of production + owned those exploited
-change would come via revolutionary class - industrialisation allow them to overthrow ruling class - working class - not peasants - key to a revolution - victory of the proletariat over bourgeoisie
33
Q
what was the revolutionaries comprised of?
A
- populists
- social revolutionaries
- social democrats
34
Q
what did the populists (narodniks) believe in?
A
- put their trust in + sought support from ordinary people
- believed from 1860s-80s peasants in russia could develop their own form of socialism - life based around co-operation + sharing in peasant communes on fairly small-scale
- avoid capitalism + evils of industrialisation
35
Q
why did the populists fail?
A
- not really clear how they would achieve their peasant socialism + did not amount to coherent programme
- believed in ‘going to the people’ + spreading socialist ideas to peasantry by peaceful propaganda - many populists - esp young people, did - moving out to countryside to live + convince them of revolutionary proposal - peasants had nothing in common with middle-class kids with strange ideas + rejected them
36
Q
what did the populists do after their failure?
A
- 1879 - some formed the people’s will
- peaceful propaganda gave way to violent action - turned to terrorism to bring down tsarism
- most spectacular success - assassination of tsar alexander II
- fierce reaction from tsarist regime - period of suppression
- peoples will + populism - helped to create revolutionary tradition giving birth to socialist revolutionary party
37
Q
what were the main beliefs of liberals?
A
- civil rights
- freedoms
- free elections
- parliamentary democracy
- limitation of tsar powers
- self-determination of minorities
38
Q
what were the methods of liberals?
A
- reform rather than violent action
- political channels through zemstva (local assemblies), articles, meetings
39
Q
what was the support for the liberals?
A
- not large support base
- main: middle class intelligentisia
- support amongst progressive landowners, businessmen + industrialists
40
Q
what did socialist revolutionaries believe?
A
- central hope for revolution with peasants - provide main support to overthrow
- unlike populists believed development of cap - fact
41
Q
what were the methods of the SRs?
A
- agitation + terrorism
- assassination of govt officials - 2000 political assass
42
Q
what was the support for the SRs?
A
- peasants large popular base - knew they represented them
- industrial base perhaps 50%
43
Q
why did the SDs split?
A
- marxists
- some believed plekhenov - too intellectual + not revolutionary enough
- some encourage qoflife of workers - others focus on revolution
- two fractions - bolsheviks (maj) - mensheviks (minorities)
44
Q
what was the difference in opinions for bolsheviks + mensheviks?
A
- bolsheviks - lenin - revolutionary party should - made up of small member of disciplined prof revs
- centralised leader
- system of small cells
- lead workers through rev
- mensheviks - democratic
- encourage qoflife
