The relationship between religious beliefs, social change and stability

Question 1

Functionalist theories see religion as…

Answer 1

a force for stability rather than change. It reinforces value consensus, it strengthens social solidarity, it deals with life crises which threaten to disrupt society. As such, religion is see as a conservative force which maintains the status quo

Question 2

Durkheim

Answer 2

According to Durkheim, religion reinforces the collective conscience- the norms and values of society. Religious rituals strengthen solidarity by binding together members of society. In these respects, religion is a force for stability rather than change.

Question 3

Malinoski

Answer 3

According to Malinowski, religion serves to reduce the anxiety and tension which results from events which threaten to disrupt social life. Such events include life crises, such as puberty, marriage and death

Question 4

Parsons

Answer 4

Like Durkheim, Parsons sees religion as reinforcing value consensus- for example, the ten commandments support the norms and values of western countries. He also sees religion as giving meaning to and making sense of life. This helps people to adjust to and accept their situation which, in turn, promotes social stability. Therefore, the emphasis is stability rather than change.

Question 5

Feminists see religion as…

Answer 5

a conservative force. Where Marxists have seen religion as maintaining the power of the ruling class, feminists have seen it as maintaining patriarchy- the domination of women by men

Question 6

Christianity provides evidence to support this view…

Answer 6

• The Christian God- ‘our father’- has traditionally been seen as male
• Eve was created as a helpmate for Adam
• Christianity traditionally defined a wife as the property of her husband and she owed him long life obedience

Question 7

Marxist see religion as…

Answer 7

a conservative force. According to Karl Marx, it justifies the dominance of the ruling class and provides consolation for the subject class. As a result, religion discourages social change.

Question 8

‘Religion legitimates the ruling class’

Answer 8

Religion often legitimates the position of the ruling class. For example, monarchs in Medieval Europe ruled by divine right. How can human beings change what is ordained by God?

Question 9

‘Religion is the Opium of the People’

Answer 9

According to Marx, religion is the ‘opium of the people’. It provides consolation for the misery of oppression by offering the false promise of eternal happiness in the next life. The illusion of happiness makes life appear bearable and therefore discourages attempts by the subject class to change their situation. Again, religion acts as a conservative force which maintains things the way they are.

Question 10

Friedrich Engels

Answer 10

Marx’s friend and cowriter Friedrich Engels saw glimmers of a demand for change in some religious movements which looked forward to change in the here and now rather than in the after life. For example, he saw aspects of communism in Early Christianity. However, because of religion’s emphasis on the supernatural, Engels felt that these movements were doomed to failure- they would not lead to political revolution.

Question 11

Neo Marxists see religion as…

Answer 11

part of the superstructure of society, shaped by the infrastructure: the economic base. Like traditional Marxism, Neo Marxism suggests that religion can have a conservative force which maintains patriarchy. However, religion can also have a force for change, by encouraging proletariat action.

Question 12

Gramsci

Answer 12

is interested in how the ruling class maintain their control over society through the use of ideas rather than simply through coercion. Gramsci rejects the traditional Marxist view that the cultural superstructure merely reflected society’s economic base. Gramsci argues that hegemonic control isn’t inevitable- and the Catholic church could be used instead for theoretical guidance to inspire a revolt

Question 13

Maduro

Answer 13

believes that religion can be a revolutionary force that brings about change. Social liberation can be achieved if significant change occurs in the church. This change can occur if the oppressed, finding that all forms of protest are blocked by the central power, take their discontent to the churches, where their anguish may be voiced by the clergy.

Question 14

Liberation theology definition

Answer 14

a movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America at the end of the 1960s, with a strong commitment to the poor and opposition to military dictatorships. Liberation theology was a major change of direction for the Catholic church since for centuries, it had been an extremely conservative institution.

Question 15

Factors that led to the emergence of the liberation thesis

Answer 15

• Deepening rural poverty and the growth of urban slums throughout Latin America
• Human rights abuses following military take-overs, such as false imprisonment, torture and death squads murdering political opponents
• The growing commitment among Catholic priests to an ideology that supported the poor and opposed human rights violations

Question 16

‘praxis’

Answer 16

(means practical action guided by theory) Unlike traditional Catholicism, which supported the status quo, liberation theology set out to change society by praxis. e.g. priests helped the poor establish support groups and took the lead in developing literacy programmes

Question 17

1970s Latin America

Answer 17

During the 1970s, Catholic Priests actively resisted state terror in Latin America. They were often the only authority figures who took the side of the oppressed when dictatorships used murder squads and torture to hold on to power.

Question 18

Attitude of the Catholic Church in 1980s

Answer 18

The church’s official attitude changed in the 1980s. Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology on the grounds that it resembled Marxism, and instructed Priests to concentrate on pastoral activities rather than political struggle.

Question 19

Success of liberation theology lends support to Neo Marxist theory of religion

Answer 19

The success of liberation theology has led some neo Marxist to question the (traditional Marxist) view that religion is a conservative force.

Question 20

Bruce- the civil rights movement

Answer 20

describes the struggle of the black civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s to end racial segregation as an example of religiously motivated social change

Question 21

Segregation and the denial of political and human rights

Answer 21

Although slavery had been abolished blacks were denied legal and political rights in many southern states where segregation was enforced, e.g. excluded from voting, separate schools and inter-racial marriages forbidden

Question 22

Campaigning

Answer 22

The Civil Rights Movement began in 1955 when Rosa Parks, a black Civil Rights activist in Montgomery, refused to sit at the back of the bus, as blacks were expected to do. Campaigning involved direct action by black people themselves (protest marches, boycotts and demonstrations) Almost a decade later, segregation was outlawed.

Question 23

Black clergy legitimised protests

Answer 23

Bruce describes the black clergy as the backbone of the movement. Led by Dr Martin Luther King, they played a decisive role , giving support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activities. Their churches provided meeting places and sanctuary from the threat of white violence, and were a sense of unity in the face of oppression

Question 24

Religion is an Ideological Resource

Answer 24

It provides beliefs and practices that protestors could draw on for motivation and support. Using the civil rights movement as an example, he identifies several ways in which religious organisations are well equipped to support protests and contribute to social change

Question 25

Religious organisations are well equipped to support protests and contribute to social change

Answer 25

• taking the moral high ground (Black clergy pointed out the hypocrisy of white clergy who practiced ‘love thy neighbour’ but supported racial segregation)
• channelling dissent (funeral of martin Luther king was rallying point for civil rights cause)
• Acting as honest broker (can provide a context for negotiating change as they are often represented by both sides , seen as standing above mere politics)
• Mobilising public opinion (black churches in the south successfully campaigned for support across the whole of America)

Question 26

Weber- ‘the protestant ethic and spirit of Capitalism’

Answer 26

argues that the religious beliefs of Calvinism (a form of Protestantism found by Calvin) helped to bring about a major social change- specifically, the emergence of modern Capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16th or 17th centuries. Weber argues that beliefs of the Calvinists has similarities to the spirit of Capitalism

Question 27

Calvinist beliefs

PREDESTINATION

Answer 27

God has predetermined which souls would be saved (elect) and which would not, even before birth, individuals can do nothing to change this, whether through their deeds nor their faith.

Question 28

DIVINE TRANSCENDENCE

Answer 28

God was so far above and beyond this world that no human being could possibly claim to know his will (other than that chosen to reveal through the bible)

Question 29

SALVATION PANIC

Answer 29

The Calvinists had an unprecedented inner loneliness. When combined with the doctrine of predestination, this created what Weber called a ‘salvation panic’. Calvinists did not know whether they had been chosen to be saved, and they could not do anything to earn their salvation

Question 30

ASCETICISM

Answer 30

Referring to self-disciple. E.g. monks have an ascetic lifestyle, refrained from luxury, wearing simple clothes and avoiding excess to devote themselves to God

Question 31

VOCATION/CALLING

Answer 31

Before Calvinism, the idea of a religious vocation, meant renouncing everyday life to join a combat or monastery. Weber calls this ‘other worldly asceticism’. By contrast, ‘this worldly asceticism’, the only thing Calvinists knew of God’s plan for humanity came from the bible, which revealed to them that we were put on Earth to glorify God’s name by our work

Question 32

THE CALVINISTS HARD WORK AND ASCETICISM HAD TWO CONSEQUENCES

Answer 32

Firstly, their wealth and success performed a psychological function for the Calvinists that allowed them to cope with their salvation panic. As they grew wealthier, they took this as a sign of God’s favour and their salvation. Secondly, driven by their work ethic, they systematically and methodically accumulated wealth by the most rational means possible. But not permitting themselves to squander it on luxuries, they reinvested their business which grew and prospered, producing further profit

Question 33

Fundamentalism

Answer 33

In recent years, there has been a rise in religious fundamentalism- in particular, Christian fundamentalism and Islamic Fundamentalism. This is seen as a return to the basics of religion. It usually involves a literal interpretation of religious texts and strict moral codes of behaviour. Its followers tend to look to the past- a golden age for religion, uncorrupted by the evils of modern society. Therefore, in one respect fundamentalism is conservative, in another respect it is not because they seek to change existing society

Question 34

Christian Fundamentalism

The moral majority

Answer 34

The moral majority pointed out what they saw as the ills of American society, e.g. high divorce rates, juvenile delinquency and increasing tolerance for homosexuality, which in their view, was not God’s way. The moral majority was founded by Falwell and a small group of preachers. They returned to traditional values by basing their view on a literal interpretation of the Bible.

Question 35

Presidency of Ronald Reagan and Bush

Answer 35

The election of Ronald Reagan as president of USA has been seen as an indication of the moral majority’s power, since he shared many of their views. However, by the 1990’s, many felt the movement had failed. ‘The moral landscape of America has become worse’. Despite this, there is evidence that Christian Fundamentalism had a significant influence on Bush’s presidency and on his policies from then on.

Question 36

Islamic Fundamentalism

Saviours and Guardians of Society

Answer 36

Although Islamic fundamentalists vary due to local history and circumstances, they have things in common. Islamic fundamentalists see themselves as the saviours and moral guardians of their societies. They are the chosen few who must restore true religion in an immoral and decadent society which has abandoned God’s design for living

Question 37

The Iranian Revolution

1920s/30s

Answer 37

The ruler felt that traditional Islamic culture was holding back the modernisation of his country and introduced a Western curriculum into schools. secular laws into courts and invited Western companies into Iran to develop agriculture/industry

Question 38

Iran by 1970s: Westernisation and Poverty

Answer 38

By the 1970s, parts of Iran, particularly the capital, were becoming increasingly westernised with bars, cinemas, discos and nightclubs. Many people resented the wealthy elite and influence of the west. Religious leaders saw the solution as a truly Islamic society based on the Qur’an and a rejection of Western Ways

Question 39

Iran revolution and Sharia Law- 1979

Answer 39

The people overthrew the ruler and an Islamic state was established. Bars were looted, cinemas destroyed, casinos and nightclubs closed down, and alcohol and Western music banned. Women were encouraged to stay at home and study the Qur’an, and cover themselves when in public. School children now recited the Qur’an instead of the National anthem

Question 40

Conclusion

Answer 40

In one respect, fundamentalism is a conservative force which look backwards for inspiration and attempt to turn the clock back to a time of true religion. On the other hand, fundamentalism also aims to change society. Christian fundamentalism aims to change the moral landscape of America. In Iran, it aims to rid the country of Western Influence and create an Islamic society. These are radical aims and can sometimes lead to social change, such as in the Iranian revolt