The Psychodynamic Approach

Question 1

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Answer 1

An Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist

Acknowledged to be the founder of the Psychodynamic Approach

He developed a form of therapy known as psychoanalysis, which deals with the conflicts within the mind that have been developed through traumatic experiences

Question 2

The Psychodynamic Approach: Key Assumptions

Answer 2

1) The unconscious mind is the driving force behind our behaviour
If we have problematic or challenging behaviour then we must access the unconscious mind to address it.

2) Instincts/Drives motivate our behaviour
We are driven by instinct to go through a series of psychosexual stages in the development of our behaviour and personality.
Eros and Thanatos drive

3) Early childhood experiences determine adult behaviour
- They are pivotal in making us the person we are.
- Most of our psychological development is argued to be formed prior to age six.

Question 3

Freud used the Iceberg metaphor to describe the mind:

Answer 3

The tip of the iceberg, which is visible above the surface is the conscious mind.
Hidden below the surface and holding greater influence is the unconscious mind.

Question 4

what is the conscious mind

Answer 4

Conscious Mind: the part of our mind we can access

Question 5

what is the Preconscious Mind

Answer 5

2. Preconscious Mind: lies just below the surface and is made up of the thoughts that may surface at any point into the conscious.
   Many of our memories reside here (they are accessible, but are not in the forefront of our thoughts) .

Question 6

what is the unconscious mind

Answer 6

3. Unconscious Mind: thoughts that will not easily surface and may never do so.
   Contains the primitive drives or instincts that motivate our behaviour.
   Traumatic/unpleasant/repressed thoughts, memories and feelings remain here, protecting the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict, and although they are not accessible, they may influence our behaviour.
   Defence mechanisms, e.g. repression, denial, displacement, are used unconsciously to reduce anxiety.
   Freud believed that most of our behaviour/personality is controlled by the unconscious mind, revealing itself in Freudian slips, creativity and neurotic symptoms.

Question 7

Freud used 3 levels of thought to explain behaviour:

Answer 7

conscious mind
preconscious mind
unconscious mind

Question 8

The psychodynamic approach argues…..

Answer 8

…. that there are 3 parts to our personality and the way they develop affects the person we become.
Each demands gratification and is frequently in conflict with the other parts.

Question 9

The Id

Answer 9

The Id (forms from birth-18 months):
Operates solely in the unconscious.
Contains the libido.
Referred to as the ‘pleasure principle’ - it demands immediate gratification (pleasure) regardless of the circumstances (it is impulsive).
Childlike, selfish, hedonistic, instinct-driven and entirely focused on the self.

Question 10

The Ego

Answer 10

The Ego (forms from 18 months - 3 years):

Referred to as the ‘reality principle’

It mediates and ensures balance between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of the superego, as well as the reality of the external world.

It is able to delay the id’s drive for pleasure until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands.

Question 11

The Superego

Answer 11

The Superego (forms from 3 - 6 years):
Referred to as the ‘morality principle’
It helps the personality to form a moral code.
It develops as a result of interactions with parents (socialisation) – child internalises their values.

Question 12

The Structure of Personality

Answer 12

If the Ego is too weak = this allows the id or superego to dominate the personality….

If the Id dominates the personality = selfish, out of control behaviour; aggressive; potential for psychopathic behaviour.

If the Superego dominates = strict, anxious, obsessive; could lead to depression, phobias, anxiety, OCD (neurotic behaviour).

Question 13

what are defence mechanisms

Answer 13

Defence mechanisms: methods we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety.
Anxiety weakens the influence of the ego, which needs to be strong to mediate between the id and the superego.

Question 14

what are the three defence mechanisms

Answer 14

Repression
Denial
Displacement

Question 15

Repression:

Answer 15

An unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconscious where it is not accessible to the conscious mind.
There is no recall of the event or situation, but it can still affect our behaviour.
For example, a child who suffers abuse from a relative may have no recollection of this, but has trouble forming relationships.

Question 16

Denial:

Answer 16

The refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation.
The person may believe that the situation is not negative or that the unpleasant event has not happened.
For example, an alcoholic denies having a drinking problem even after being arrested for drunk and disorderly behaviour.

Question 17

Displacement:

Answer 17

The focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a substitute neutral person or object.
For example, having an argument with a parent and then kicking your dog.
Or, having a bad day at work and then going home and shouting at your family.

Question 18

Psychosexual Stages

Answer 18

Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five psychosexual stages.

According to Freud, the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido).

The individual experiences tension due to the build up of this sexual energy and pleasure comes from its discharge.

At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.

Question 19

Fixation

Answer 19

Fixation (libido becomes locked in a stage) at a certain psychosexual stage may occur because:
The needs of the developing individual at a particular stage may not have been adequately met –> frustration
The person’s needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage –> overindulgence

Fixation has an unconscious effect on personality

Question 20

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

Answer 20

The libido and focus for pleasure is centered on the baby’s mouth.
The child gets satisfaction from putting things in its mouth to satisfy the libido and thus its id demands i.e. through sucking and biting.

Question 21

Fixation at the oral stage may occur if….

Answer 21

Frustration: a child is weaned from its mother’s milk too early or underfed (orally aggressive).
Overindulgence: Weaned too late or overfed (orally passive).
An orally passive person might be dependent, very passive and gullible.
An orally aggressive person will be dominant and aggressive, either physically or verbally.
Overall, people with an oral fixation are thought to be more likely to chew on pens, bite their fingernails and smoke.

Question 22

Anal Stage (18-36 months)

Answer 22

The libido becomes focused on the anus and the child derives pleasure from defecating i.e. withholding/expelling faeces.

The anal stage represents the beginnings of ego development, as the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others e.g. parents.

The major issue at this stage is toilet training as the child has to learn to control the expulsion of bodily waste.

Question 23

Fixation at the anal stage may occur if….

Answer 23

Overindulgence:
The child loves using the potty and is overly keen to do so – lax potty training.
As an adult, fixation at this stage as a result of overindulgence leads to generosity, creativity and someone who is demonstrative with their emotions. They are often disorganised and untidy (anally expulsive).

Frustration:
If the parents are very strict about potty training, the child will become anxious about using the potty and try to hold onto their faeces.
As an adult, fixation at this stage as a result of frustration leads to personality characteristics such as being very organised, neat and reluctant to spend money (anally retentive).

Question 24

Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

Answer 24

Sexual energy is now focused on the genitals.
This stage is differentiated by the gender of the child.
The major conflict of this stage is the Oedipus/Electra complex.
Fixations at this stage can lead to homosexuality and a jealous/anxious adult.
Men may experience possible vanity, self-obsession and narcissism.
Women may experience inferiority and envy.

Question 25

Oedipus Complex

Answer 25

A young boy experiences intense sexual feelings for his mother.
He sees his father as a love rival.
He feels threatened by him and fears he could harm him.
The boy experiences castration anxiety.
To reduce this anxiety and resolve this problem, the child befriends his father and identifies with him.

Question 26

Electra Complex

Answer 26

For girls, the realization that they do not have a penis leads to penis envy.
They blame the mother for this ‘castrated state’, which creates tension.
Young girls sexually desire their fathers.
Girls substitute their desire for a penis with a desire for a baby.
To reduce this anxiety and resolve the conflict, the child comes to identify with her mother.

Question 27

Latent Stage (6-12 years)

Answer 27

No further psychosexual development occurs and the libido is dormant.
There are no foci for pleasure nor complexes to resolve.
The conflicts/issues of previous stages are repressed and children are unable to remember much of their early years.
There are no fixations or effects on the adult personality.
The child’s energy is focused on mastering the world around them, developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge.

Question 28

Genital Stage (12+ years)

Answer 28

The culmination of psychosexual development.
The libido is focused in the genitals, where it stays for life.
Everyone reaches this stage, which directs us towards the beginnings of adult life and sexual intercourse.

Question 29

The Case Study of Little Hans (1909)

Answer 29

Little Hans developed a phobia of horses.

His father (one of Freud’s friends) documented what his son said and did in detail and passed the information on to Freud in the form of letters for him to analyse the Hans’ behaviour.

Freud interpreted the boy’s behaviour and reported dreams as a problem in the phallic psychosexual stage.

It was an in-depth analysis ~150 pages in length.

Question 30

The Case Study of Little Hans (1909)
The key features of the analysis were

Answer 30

Hans’ fascination with his ‘widdler’. He noticed that animals, including horses, often had much larger penises than him - phallic stage of development

Question 31

The Case Study of Little Hans (1909)
Evidence of the Oedipus complex:

Answer 31

Hans’ father went away for a while and Hans enjoyed having his mother’s attention to himself. When his father returned, Hans resented his presence.
Hans was hostile towards his newly born sister, Hannah, jealous of the attention she was receiving from their mother.
He enjoyed getting into bed with his mother, experiencing a sexual attraction to her and seeing his father as a rival for her affections.
Hans was experiencing castration anxiety – he developed a fear of being bitten by horses.
Hans was afraid of white horses with blinkers and black hair around their mouths  represented his father.

Question 32

Evaluation of The Case Study of Little Hans (1909)

Answer 32

Freud met the boy only once in a therapeutic setting and the information was forwarded by the father (who was an avid follower of Freud’s work), so the source was potentially biased.

Freud could have been looking for evidence to support his ideas – confirmation bias.

Hans had seen a horse collapse in the street when he was young. This could have shocked him and thus classically conditioned him to fear horses. This could have been the source of the phobia, rather than the Oedipus complex.

Question 33

P:Psychoanalysis has been hailed as a pioneering approach.

Answer 33

E:- It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering empirical evidence i.e. the use of case studies and relied on observations of behaviour rather than on introspection.
- From these observations, Freud was able to demonstrate the potential of psychological treatments for disorders such as depression & anxiety:
-he pioneered the use of Psychoanalysis e.g. dream analysis, free association

C:Maat et al. (2009) conducted a large-scale review of psychotherapy studies and concluded that psychoanalysis has produced significant long-term improvements in symptoms.

Question 34

P:There is research support for the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 34

E:Fisher & Greenberg (1996) summarised ~2,500 studies (meta-analysis) concluded that experimental studies of psychoanalysis ‘compare well with studies relevant to any other major areas of psychology.’ In particular, they found support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour, and the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement.

C:This shows that many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and confirmed.

Question 35

P:Psychoanalysis is a gender-biased approach

Answer 35

E:Freud’s views of women and female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality - Freud was ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality.

Freud’s work has also been criticised for being sexist, arguing that girls develop ‘penis envy’ during the Electra complex, implying that male genitalia is superior and that males are therefore superior.

C:Dismissing women and their sexuality is problematic, because he treated many female patients and also because his theories are still so influential, which could impact on the way that females are treated today using psychoanalysis.

Question 36

P:Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach

Answer 36

E:Sue & Sue (2008) argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious and that freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them.
However, in China, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress, rather than discuss them openly.

C:Therefore, the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy may not apply to all cultures.

Question 37

Other Limitations

Answer 37

His theory lacks validity and reliability: Freud’s ideas are abstract, unscientific and therefore difficult to test (and thus falsify). - His case studies lack population validity and rely on retrospective data, which may be inaccurate.

Biased sample: Freud’s case studies mainly involved white, middle-class, neurotic, Viennese, Victorian women.
Although there is some anecdotal evidence that defence mechanisms are used by individuals and that psychological problems in adulthood relate back to childhood trauma, the evidence relies on personal testimony, which is highly subjective and does not qualify as scientific evidence.

Deterministic: the theory states that behaviour is controlled by the unconscious mind, which we do not have control of. Therefore, it overlooks the role of free will.

Freud placed heavy emphasis on sexual factors and childhood experiences, thus overlooking social factors and adult experiences