The Protection of Antarctica Flashcards
What is SCAR?
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
What three things does SCAR monitor?
Resilience, mitigation and adaptation
What is ecosystem resilience?
The ability of an ecosystem to recover from a severe disturbance by resisting damage and returning to an equilibrium position of functionality
What does ecosystem resilience include?
The ability of a species to recover from ‘shock’ events, disturbances or ongoing change both natural and human induced
What might the ability of ecosystems to ‘bounce back’ be linked to?
Adaptation
What type of species are generally capable of surviving shock events?
Endemic species
Why are endemic species generally capable of surviving shock events?
They evolve strategies to allow their populations to rebuild.
Give two examples of endemic species
Longevity among seabirds and the ability of plant seeds to survive for long periods.
What is the benthic environment?
The ecological region at the bottom of a body of water
What will present challenges to marine ecosystems in the future?
The increased frequency of intense storms or more localised events such as scouring at the benthic environment
Give an example of a species that recovered after being pushed to the brink of extinction by humans?
The king penguin
What 5 components are changing too quickly for many species to adapt?
Increasing sea temperature Ocean acidification Expanding sea ice cover in some areas Loss of sea ice and land ice cover in other areas Higher intensities of UV radiation
What is causing certain components to change too quickly?
Climate change
What is mitigation?
The intervention by humans to eliminate or reduce the risk and hazards presented by natural or human induced activities
What two things does the IPCC recognise are important to a response to the challenges by climate change?
Mitigation and adaptation
What are two mitigation measures for climate change?
Energy conservation
Reducing carbon emissions
How can mitigation in Antarctica take place on a regional or local scale?
By protecting the existing environment and by monitoring any change
What is ATS?
The Antarctic Treaty System
What is the main remedy for the international governance of Antarctica?
ATS
What has increased the access to Antarctica?
Greater scientific knowledge and more advanced equipment
What threat does more advanced equipment pose for Antarctica?
Unchecked resource exploitation
Why were permanent stations established in Antarctica?
To commence the first substantial multi-nation research program during the IGY
When were the permanent stations established in Antarctica?
By the 1950s
What is IGY?
The International Geophysical Year
When was the IGY?
1957-58
What was asserted but never agreed and brought tensions?
Territorial positions
Why was the ATS signed?
Because of disputes over ownership
Who was the ATS first signed by?
The nations that had been active during the IGY
What were the 3 reasons why the ATS was agreed?
Avoid disagreements and conflict
Resolve disputes over ownership and mining rights
Establish guidelines to limit development on the continent
When was the ATS signed?
December 1959
How many nations signed up to the ATS originally?
12
`What did the ATS formalise?
It formalised and guaranteed free access and research rights so that all countries could work together for the common causes of scientific research and exchange of ideas.
Which area does the ATS apply to?
The area 60 degrees south of latitude
How many articles are in the ATS?
14
Summarise the ATS
Use Antarctica for peaceful purposes
International scientific research cooperation
Set aside potential sovereignty disputes
No nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive waste
Parties must give notice before their expeditions
A mechanism by which the Treaty can be modified
When did ATS come into force?
23rd June 1961
Has the ATS been successful?
It has been recognised as one of the most successful international agreements
What type of regime is the ATS?
A disarmament regime
What is the ATS governed by?
The annual ATCM
What is ATCM?
The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
What is the core of the wider ATS system?
The Antarctic Treaty
What other agreements are part of the wider ATS system?
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Two separate conventions dealing with the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
The Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
What is the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also known as?
The Madrid Protocol
When was the Madrid Protocol?
1991
What other organisations are now involved in the wider system?
NGOs and scientific institutions
What does the agreement now include as a result of these supplementary agreements?
Protection of the Antarctic environment
Conservation of plants and animals
Preservation of historic sites
Designation and management of protected areas
Management of tourism
Collection of meteorological data and hydrographic charting
Logistic co-operation
Why can more people agree to the Treaty?
Any member of the UN can accede to it
How many signatories does the ATS have?
53
How many of the signatories are ‘Consultative Parties’?
28
What is meant by ‘Consultative Party’?
Either an original signatory or as countries conducting substantial research in Antarctica
Who was the Madrid Protocol negotiated by?
The UN and the treaty members
What is the purpose of the Madrid Protocol?
To give extra protection to the environment of Antarctica, especially against mineral exploitation
What did the negotiation of the Madrid Protocol follow?
Years of international talks about controlling mineral resource activities in Antarctica
When was the Antarctic Minerals Convention proposed?
1988
Did the Antarctic Minerals Convention ever come into force?
No
What would the Antarctic Minerals Convention have been a part of?
The ATS
What did the Antarctic Minerals Convention propose?
That it might be possible to go mining in Antarctica
Who opposed the Antarctic Minerals Convention?
Australia and France
Summarise the Madrid Protocol
Antarctica is a designated ‘natural reserve, devoted to peace and science’
All activities must be assessed for their environmental impacts
Principles for the conduct of activities
Committee for Environmental Protection responsible for advice, inspection and reporting
Waste returns to country of origin
Operators in Antarctica develop contingency plans to respond to environmental emergencies
When did the Madrid Protocol come into force?
1998
What is required in order to modify the Madrid Protocol?
All parties must agree
When will the next review conference on mining prohibition be?
In 50 years
When is it most likely that changes to the mining prohibition will be made?
2048
In 2048, what percentage of consultative parties will have to agree to any modifications of the mining prohibition?
75%
Who is responsible for prosecutions against Treaty rules?
The individual nation states through the ATCM
What are now designated by the ATCM as a result of the Madrid Protocol?
Observers
Where are environmental audits now carried out as a result of the Madrid Protocol?
Around bases, on land and in the sea
What do environmental audits assess?
The impacts that bases and their activities have on surrounding areas
What is a problem with the environmental audits?
They focus on ships, aircraft and loading areas instead of maritime areas which are equally important
What are any new activities by operators subject to?
Environmental impact assessments
When was the IWC established?
In 1946
What is the purpose of the IWC?
To provide proper conservation of whale stocks and the orderly development of the whaling industry
What is the IWC responsible for?
It is the global body responsible for the conservation of whales and the management of whaling
What is the main duty of the IWC?
To keep under review the measures laid down by the Whaling Convention
What does the Whaling Convention govern?
The conduct of whaling throughout the world
What do the Whaling Convention measures provide for?
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The complete protection of certain whale species
Designated specified areas as whale sanctuaries
Prescribed open and closed seasons and areas for whaling
Prohibition on the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves
Compilation of catch reports and other statistical and biological records
What did the IWC decide in 1982?
That there should be a pause in commercial whaling on all stocks from the 1985/86 season onwards
What is the pause decided by the IWC often referred to as?
The commercial whaling moratorium
Is the commercial whaling moratorium still in place today?
Yes
What does the whaling moratorium not affect?
‘Aboriginal subsistence whaling’
Where is aboriginal subsistence whaling carried out?
Alaska, Greenland and parts of Canada
How is Japan able to evade the moratorium?
By ‘special permit’ whaling
Which countries take whales commercially at present?
Norway and Iceland
Where do Norway and Iceland take their whales from?
Their own Exclusive Economic Zones
What type of whale do Norway and Iceland take?
The North Atlantic common minke
What do Iceland and Norway establish in regards to whaling?
Their own catch limits
What do Iceland and Norway have to provide to the commission?
Information on catches and associated scientific data
Who is the moratorium binding to?
All other members of the IWC except Russia who registered an objection to it, although this objection has not been exercised
How many NGOs from around the world have grouped together to form an umbrella group?
Over 30
What is the umbrella group of NGOs known as?
The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
What is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition comprised of?
A number of well-known organisations such as Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and WWF
Why did the NGO coalition form?
In response to the concern that members of the Atlantic Treaty were meeting to negotiate a framework for minerals and gas exploitation in Antarctica
What were the original objectives of the NGO coalition?(3)
To convince governments to:
Conclude negotiations of the world’s first ‘ecosystem as a whole’ treaty on fishing
Prevent oil, gas and minerals exploitation by blocking ratification of the proposed Minerals Convention
To open up the ATS to include participation by NGOs and specialist international bodies such as the ICSU
What is the ICSU?
International Council for Science
What is ASOC?
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
What was a major victory for ASOC?
When a precautionary ecosystem approach was embedded into the Antarctic Treaty
What was ASOC partially instrumental to?
The development of the Madrid Protocol
What status was ASOC granted in 1991?
Observer status
What does ASOC’s observer status mean?
It is now able to attend annual meetings
What do ASOC’s scope of activities now involve?
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Negotiating a legally binding Polar Code covering all vessels operating in the Southern Ocean
Establishing a network of marine reserves including Marine Protected Area status for the Ross Sea
Managing Southern Ocean fisheries
Regulating tourism and biological prospecting
Strengthening the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Monitoring the impacts of climate change
Monitoring the implementation of the Madrid Protocol
What does SCAR stand for?
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
What is SCAR?
An inter-disciplinary committee of the ICSU
What is the role of SCAR?
To initiate, develop and co-ordinate the scientific research efforts taking place in Antarctica
What is SCAR’s approach like?
It is more holistic
What does SCAR also do?
It operates in an advisory capacity to the ATCM and other organisations such as the UNFCCC and the IPCC
What does UNFCCC stand for?
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
What does SCAR advise on?
The science and conservation affecting the governance of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean and makes recommendations on a wide range of related issues- some of which have been adopted by the ATS
