The Promise and the Threat

Question 1

Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Suez Crisis

Answer 1

In 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal Company, leading to the Suez Crisis. This action strained U.S. relations with Britain and France and came after they withdrew funding for Egypt’s Aswan Dam project.

On July 26, Nasser announced martial law in the canal zone, surprising the world and angering France. The U.S., under President Eisenhower, sought a peaceful solution, opposed the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula, and secured a UN resolution condemning the aggression. The crisis had lasting effects on U.S. relations with Middle Eastern countries and European allies.

Question 2

Bao Dai

Answer 2

Bao Dai (1913-1997) was the last emperor of Vietnam. He became emperor at 12 in 1926 and studied in France while a council ran the country. He returned in 1932 to implement reforms but had limited power due to French control. He collaborated with the Japanese during World War II and later fled to Hong Kong and France. After returning, he was ousted in 1954. He lived in Paris for the rest of his life, making a rare peace appeal in 1972.

Question 3

The Eisenhower Doctrine

Answer 3

Eisenhower on January 5, 1957, within a “Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East”. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression.

Question 4

Ngo Dinh Diem

Answer 4

Ngo Dinh Diem was the first president of South Vietnam from 1955 to 1963. He was supported by the US because he was against communism. However, he ruled harshly and favored Catholics, which upset the majority Buddhist population and caused much resistance.

Diem was from a wealthy Catholic family and criticized French rule. He became leader after the Geneva Accords with help from the US. His government used repression and unfair elections, leading to more anger. In 1963, growing opposition, especially during the Buddhist crisis, led to his assassination during a military coup supported by the US.

Question 5

Kennedy and Flexible Response

Answer 5

“Flexible Response” was a military strategy introduced by President Kennedy during the Cold War, providing the U.S. with various options to counter Soviet aggression beyond nuclear retaliation. It included the use of conventional forces, diplomacy, and economic sanctions instead of solely relying on nuclear deterrence. Kennedy also increased the military budget to develop new conventional weapons to effectively address threats at different levels of conflict.

Question 6

Ho Chi Minh

Answer 6

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) was a Vietnamese leader who fought for independence. Born Nguyen Sinh Cung, he supported the Russian Revolution and studied in Hue. After working on a French ship and living in Europe, he became a socialist and petitioned for equal rights for Indochina in 1919.

He founded the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and led the fight against Japanese and French rule. As the first president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from 1945 until his death, he is regarded as a national hero, with his embalmed body in a mausoleum in Hanoi and statues worldwide.

Question 7

The Bay of Pigs

Answer 7

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed April 1961 operation where CIA-trained Cuban exiles attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro by landing at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The invasion was quickly defeated, embarrassing President John F. Kennedy and strengthening Castro’s power while raising Cold War tensions.

Question 8

Kennedy in Vietnam

Answer 8

John F. Kennedy increased U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War by sending over 16,000 military advisors to support Ngo Dinh Diem. He did not send combat troops but was considering a withdrawal before his assassination, sparking historical debate.

Through Operation “Beef Up,” he aimed to strengthen the South Vietnamese military against the Viet Cong. Concerned about Diem’s corruption and treatment of Buddhists, Kennedy supported a coup that led to Diem’s assassination in November 1963. For more, visit the JFK Library.

Question 9

“Lyndon Johnson’s War”

Answer 9

“Lyndon Johnson’s War” by Michael H. Hunt examines U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War during President Johnson’s administration, focusing on its origins, escalation, and the public protests that led to his decision not to seek re-election in 1968.

Hunt analyzes factors influencing Johnson’s decisions and critiques “The Ugly American” for its misguided belief in winning Vietnamese support. He highlights the 1968 Tet Offensive’s impact on public opinion and discusses the war’s lasting effects on American foreign policy and politics.

Question 10

The Cuban Missile Crisis

Answer 10

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over nuclear missiles placed in Cuba. After the U.S. discovered these missiles, it set up a naval blockade to stop more from arriving. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to take down the missiles in return for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba. This critical moment highlighted the risks of Cold War tensions and the need for diplomacy to avoid nuclear war.

Question 11

The Tonkin Gulf Incident and the Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Answer 11

The Tonkin Gulf Incident involved attacks on two US Navy destroyers in August 1964. Following this, the Tonkin Gulf Resolution was passed on August 7, giving President Lyndon B. Johnson authority to escalate military action in Vietnam. Questions later arose about the second attack on August 4 due to radar issues and crew mistakes, leading to a significant increase in US military forces in the region.

Question 12

The Berlin Crisis

Answer 12

The Berlin Crisis was a Cold War conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States from 1958 to 1961. It began when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev requested Western forces to leave West Berlin and ended with the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. Key events included the wall’s construction to stop East Germans from escaping, a standoff between American and Soviet tanks at Checkpoint Charlie, and President Kennedy’s visit to Berlin in 1963. The crisis highlighted the divide between communism and democracy in Europe, with the Berlin Wall as a strong symbol of that separation.

Question 13

Hawks, Doves, and the Election of 1968

Answer 13

Doves believed that the Vietnam conflict was a localized civil war and did not agree with Johnson’s war policy, whereas Hawks supported Johnson’s policy and believed Vietnam was a crucial front in the Cold War.

Question 14

The Vietnam Quagmire

Answer 14

The “Vietnam Quagmire” describes the U.S. deep involvement in the Vietnam War without a clear victory, leading to a protracted conflict due to poor political decisions, Viet Cong guerrilla tactics, and misunderstandings of Vietnamese culture, resulting in significant losses and public opposition.

Question 15

The King and Kennedy Assassinations

Answer 15

The “King and Kennedy Assassinations” refer to Martin Luther King Jr.’s murder on April 4, 1968, and John F. Kennedy’s on November 22, 1963. King was killed by James Earl Ray while advocating for sanitation workers, and Kennedy was shot by Lee Harvey Oswald during a motorcade. Both events deeply impacted America, prompting protests and concerns about political violence. Robert F. Kennedy spoke to a mostly Black crowd in Indianapolis shortly after King’s death.

Question 16

French Indochina (Vietnam) and Guerrilla

Answer 16

The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, used guerrilla warfare to fight against French rule in Vietnam. They relied on small, mobile groups to carry out hit-and-run attacks. This strategy helped them win independence, culminating in the defeat of French forces at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

Question 17

Richard Nixon and “Vietnamizing” the War

Answer 17

Vietnamization” was a policy implemented by President Richard Nixon during the Vietnam War, aiming to gradually withdraw American troops from Vietnam while simultaneously training and equipping South Vietnamese forces to take on a larger combat role, essentially shifting the responsibility of fighting the war to the South Vietnamese, allowing the U.S. to reduce its military presence in the country.

Question 18

Dien Bien Phu

Answer 18

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was a military conflict in 1954 between the French and the Viet Minh, a communist-led group. The battle was fought from March 13 to May 7, 1954, and resulted in a Vietnamese victory that ended French colonial rule in Vietnam. The battle had many consequences, including the French withdrawal, United States involvement, Separation of Vietnam, Global geostrategic changes, and the downfall of the French Government

Question 19

The Cambodian Incursion

Answer 19

a military operation during the Vietnam War where the United States, alongside South Vietnamese forces, invaded eastern Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese and Viet Cong bases that were using the country as a sanctuary, marking a significant expansion of the war beyond Vietnamese borders; this action was authorized by President Nixon and sparked widespread anti-war protests in the U.S. due to its perceived escalation of the conflict.

Question 20

Henry Kissinger and Detente

Answer 20

An advocate of a pragmatic approach to geopolitics known as Realpolitik, Kissinger pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union, orchestrated an opening of relations with China, engaged in “shuttle diplomacy” in the Middle East to end the Yom Kippur War, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords

Question 21

The Geneva Accords of 1954

Answer 21

The Geneva Accords of 1954 were an agreement that ended the First Indochina War, officially dividing Vietnam into a communist North and a non-communist South at the 17th parallel, with the intention of holding nationwide elections within two years to unify the country; however, the South Vietnamese government refused to sign the agreement, laying the groundwork for the later Vietnam War, and the accords also established ceasefires in Laos and Cambodia, with an international commission overseeing the implementation.

Question 22

Disturbing the Peace in Vietnam

Answer 22

955-1975. The Vietnam War was a long, costly, and divisive conflict that pitted the communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The conflict was intensified by the ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Question 23

The Camelot Promise and Kennedy’s New Frontier

Answer 23

Kennedy proclaimed in his speech: We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier—the frontier of the 1960s, the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils, the frontier of unfilled hopes and unfilled threats. The pioneers gave up their safety, their comfort, and sometimes their lives to build our new west.

Question 24

The NAACP, the Black Panthers, and the Clash with Tradition

Answer 24

The Black Panther Party and the NAACP were and are both organizations focused on the advancement of African Americans. However, these organizations had different ways of getting African Americans equal rights movement primarily in the late 1960’s.

Question 25

Black Nationalism and Malcolm X

Answer 25

Malcolm X was a prominent figure in the Black Nationalist movement, advocating for racial pride, self-determination, and separation from white society, often criticizing mainstream civil rights leaders who cooperated with whites, making him a leading voice for a more radical approach to achieving equality for African Americans; his beliefs were deeply rooted in the principles of Black Nationalism, which he promoted through his affiliation with the Nation of Islam organization

Question 26

22 November 1963

Answer 26

November 22, 1963, was the day that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas

Question 27

Eisenhower Foreign Policy

Answer 27

Under the policy, known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, any Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression.

Question 28

The Warren Commission

Answer 28

The Warren Commission was a presidential commission that investigated the assassination of President John F. Kennedy and the shooting of Lee Harvey Oswald.
The commission included:
Earl Warren: Chief Justice of the United States and chairman of the commission
Richard B. Russell: Senator from Georgia
John Sherman Cooper: Senator from Kentucky
Hale Boggs: Representative from Louisiana
Gerald Ford: Representative from Michigan
Allen W. Dulles: Former director of the Central Intelligence Agency

Question 29

John Foster Dulles and the “New Look”

Answer 29

John Foster Dulles, the Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was a key figure in the development of the United States’ “New Look” national security policy.
Dulles is best known for the doctrine of “massive retaliation,” which he announced in January 1954. This doctrine threatened a severe response to any Soviet aggression, with the United States promising to “retaliate instantly, by means and at places of our choosing”. The doctrine was intended to deter Soviet aggression and give the United States a strategic advantage.
The New Look policy emphasized the use of strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats from the Soviet Union. Dulles believed that the United States could bolster its nuclear capabilities and strategic air forces instead of maintaining conventional military forces.

Question 30

The Civil Rights Act and Revenue Act of 1964

Answer 30

This landmark legislation outlawed racial segregation in public accommodations and employment discrimination. It also strengthened voting rights and desegregated schools. The act included Title VI, which prohibited discrimination in programs that receive federal funding, and Title VII, which created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment discrimination laws.
This act reduced the top marginal tax rate from 91% to 70% and the corporate tax rate from 52% to 48%. It also created a minimum standard deduction and accelerated corporate estimated tax payments. The goal of the tax cuts was to boost demand, encourage investment, and increase the gross national product.

Question 31

Sputnik, ICBMs, and the Space Race

Answer 31

The launch of Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, in 1957 by the Soviet Union had a significant impact on the Space Race, the Cold War, and the development of ICBMs:

Space Race
The launch of Sputnik 1 marked the beginning of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The US responded by accelerating its space and weapons programs, including the development of ICBMs to counter the perceived Soviet threat.

Cold War
The launch of Sputnik 1 increased Cold War tensions, as the US feared it was falling behind the Soviets in science and technology.
ICBMs
The US developed ICBMs to counter the perceived Soviet threat, and the Soviet Union boasted of its growing stockpile of ICBMs.

NASA
The launch of Sputnik 1 led to the creation of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, to manage air and space research and development.
Public reaction
The launch of Sputnik 1 had a “Pearl Harbor” effect on the American public, shocking citizens and creating a sense of technological gap.

Question 32

The Election of 1964 and Johnson’s Mandate

Answer 32

Johnson led by wide margins in all polls during the campaign. Johnson carried 44 states and the District of Columbia, which voted for the first time in this election. Goldwater won his home state and swept the five states of the Deep South, due to the Democratic Party’s strong support of civil rights and desegregation.

Question 33

From Massive Retaliation to Mutually Assured Destruction

Answer 33

was an early Cold War US military strategy that threatened a disproportionately large nuclear response to any Soviet aggression, essentially acting as a deterrent by signaling the potential for devastating retaliation; “Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)” evolved from this concept, suggesting that both the US and USSR would suffer catastrophic destruction if either launched a nuclear attack, thus creating a stalemate where neither side would dare initiate a nuclear war due to the guaranteed devastating response from the other, effectively deterring aggression through the threat of complete annihilation for both sides

Question 34

LBJ’s Great Society

Answer 34

Major new federal programs addressing civil rights, education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched. In scope and sweep, the Great Society was comparable to the 1930s New Deal domestic programs of previous Democratic president Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Question 35

The Guatemalan Revolution and Jacobo Arbenz

Answer 35

was a popular uprising that forced the resignation of dictator Jorge Ubico, leading to the country’s first democratic elections and the election of Juan José Arévalo as president, marking a period of progressive social reforms including labor rights, social security, and land redistribution under his successor Jacobo Árbenz, before a US-backed coup in 1954 toppled the government due to concerns about communist influence; this coup ushered in decades of political instability and violence in Guatemala

Question 36

The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964

Answer 36

The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, a key part of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “War on Poverty,” was a legislative initiative aimed at combating poverty through various programs providing job training, adult education, small business loans, and community development initiatives, primarily focused on assisting low-income individuals by creating opportunities for education, employment, and self-sufficiency, with the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) overseeing its implementation; notable programs under this act include Head Start, Job Corps, and VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America).

Question 37

Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro, and the Cuban Revolution of 1959

Answer 37

The Cuban Revolution of 1959 saw Fidel Castro lead a successful armed rebellion against the dictatorial regime of Fulgencio Batista, ultimately overthrowing his government and establishing a new communist state in Cuba; the revolution began with Castro’s failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953, but through guerrilla warfare tactics, he gained popular support and forced Batista to flee the country on January 1, 1959, marking the end of Batista’s rule and the beginning of Castro’s leadership.

Question 38

Medicare and Medicaid

Answer 38

Medicare is a federal health insurance program primarily for individuals aged 65 and older, while Medicaid is a joint federal and state program that provides health coverage for people with low income and limited resources, meaning someone can qualify for both depending on their situation; Medicare focuses on older adults, while Medicaid targets low-income individuals regardless of age.

Question 39

Mohammed Mossadegh, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the Iranian Revolution of 1953

Answer 39

The 1953 Iranian coup d’état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup d’état was the U.S.- and British-instigated, Iranian army-led overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening the autocratic rule of the shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, on 19 August 1953, with the objectives being to protect British oil interests in Iran after its government refused to concede to western oil demands.It was instigated by the United States and the United Kingdom. This began a period of dissolution for Iranian democracy and society whose effects on civil rights are prevalent to this day