The Patient

Question 1

What is the definition of Respiration?

Answer 1

Respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction

Question 2

What are the functions of the Respiratory system?

Answer 2

The Respiratory System allows the transport of oxygen which is needed for cellular respiration to the body tissues through the blood and removes waste product, carbon dioxide from the cells.

Question 3

Name all the parts of the respiratory system

Answer 3

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
Parts of the respiratory system include:
	- Nasal cavity (nose)  
	- Pharynx (throat) 
	- Epiglottis (back of the throat)
	- Larynx (voice box)
	- Trachea 
	- Bronchi 
	- Bronchioles
	- Alveoli

Question 4

Describe the process of respiration

Answer 4

During inspiration (inhalation), the diaphragm moves downwards and intercostal muscles contract

During exhalation, the intercostal muscles relax and the diaphragm moves upwards

Question 5

Describe how Gas exchange occurs

Answer 5

Air entering the lungs contains more oxygen and less Carbon dioxide than the blood flowing from the pulmonary artery.

This creates a concentration gradient between the alveoli and the capillaries and oxygen diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood

The oily surfactant prevents the alveoli walls from collapsing and help the alveoli pack closely together

The oxygen binds to the haemoglobin and is transported to tissues through the bloodstream

The haem group contains iron which is tightly packed in the haemoglobin to prevent bacteria from binding with (microorganisms need iron to survive)

Some of the carbon dioxide binds to haemoglobin to be transported out of the lungs

Question 6

How does emphysema affect the respiratory system?

Answer 6

Emphysema destroys the alveoli walls making them dry and brittle
The surface area is reduced, this means the rate of gas exchange is reduced which make it harder to get enough oxygen to the tissues

Question 7

How does cystic fibrosis affect the respiratory system?

Answer 7

Cystic Fibrosis is caused by a mutation in the CFTR protein that regulates the chloride ions in the lung membrane
If the interior of the cell is too salty, water is removed from the mucus by osmosis making it thick and sticky.
This makes it difficult to clear

Question 8

What is the function of mucus and cilia?

Answer 8

Goblet cells secret mucus which traps foreign particles

Cilia are hair-like structures which line the trachea and moves mucus and other foreign particles towards the pharynx

Question 9

How does smoking lead to lung cancer?

Answer 9

Smoking leads to Lung cancer and lung problems because it contains Carbon Dioxide which will affect the carbon dioxide gradient
This means that less carbon dioxide will be removed from the body
It contains carcinogenic chemicals which promotes tumours
Nicotine damages Mucociliary Clearance which makes it difficult to remove mucus

Question 10

How does smoking affect emphysema?

Answer 10

Smoking contributes to emphysema in 2 ways:
It destroys lung tissue, which is the cause of the obstruction
It causes inflammation & irritation of airways -> the disease to get worse

Question 11

Describe the mode of action of Thiazides Diuretics

Answer 11

Thiazides Diuretics reduce the blood pressure by inhibiting the reabsorption of sodium ions from the beginning of the distal convoluted tubule in the kidney

This increase the amount of sodium excreted and urine volume and can have a vasodilator effect on the arterioles

Question 12

What are the side effects of Thiazide

Answer 12

Hypokalaemia
Hyponatraemia
Hypomagneseamia
Reduced excretion of calcium can lead to hypercalcaemia
Interference with the excretion of Uric acid

Question 13

What is the mode of action of beta blockers?

Answer 13

Beta Blockers bind to the beta-adrenoceptors: beta-1-receptors & beta-2-receptors

This prevent the stimulation of neurotransmitters which increase sympathetic nervous system activity

It also prevents the increase of heart rate by preventing the binding of beta-1-receptors at the Sino-atrial node

Ultimately, reducing cardiac output, peripheral vascular resistance and sodium and water retention

Question 14

What are the side effects of Beta Blockers?

Answer 14

Bronchospasm
Impairment of myocardial contractions
Bradycardia
Reduced awareness of hypoglycaemia in insulin-dependent patients

Question 15

What is the mode of action of ACE Inhibitors?

Answer 15

ACE Inhibitors competitively inhibit the formation of the angiotensin II which promotes vasoconstriction and stimulates the release of aldersterone

Breakdown of bradykinins which promotes a vasodilatory effect

Question 16

What are the side effects of ACE Inhibitors?

Answer 16

ACE Inhibitors cause hyperkalaemia due to reduced aldosterone production

Dry cough

Question 17

What is the mode of action of calcium channel blockers?

Answer 17

Calcium Channel Blockers prevent the influx of calcium ions into the myocardial cells, reducing myocardial contractility reducing the propagation of electrical impulses within the heart

Promotes vasodilation and interfere with construction of vascular muscles cells

Question 18

What are the side effects of Calcium Channel Blockers

Answer 18

Facial Flushing 
Headaches 
Swelling at the ankles 
Abdominal pain 
Gastrointestinal disturbances (such as constipation)