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week 10 (Y1) > the patient > Flashcards

the patient Flashcards

1
Q

what are the purine bases

A

adenine
guanine

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2
Q

what are pyramidine bases

A

cytosine
thymine

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3
Q

helicase

A

unwinds the DNA double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds

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4
Q

what are single stranded binding proteins (SSBs)

A

stabilises single strands

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5
Q

what’s primase

A

makes short pieces of RNA to ‘prime’ DNA synthesis

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6
Q

what is DNA polymerase

A

polymerises DNA, according to the template from dNTPs

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7
Q

what’s ligase

A

seals breaks (okozakki fragments) during synthesis of DNA

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8
Q

what do topoisomerase do

A

mentain supercoiling

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9
Q

what are the three stages of transcription

A

initiation
elongation
termination

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10
Q

what’s initiation

A

requires a promoter

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11
Q

what’s elongation

A

nucleotides/NTPs are added to the growing RNA chain by RNA polymerase with the loss of PPi each time.

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12
Q

what’s termination

A

stem loop becomes elongated in the polymerase. and the complex dissociates with or without a factor called RNA polymerase

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13
Q

describe the in detail process of termination

A

D) TFIID: recognised and binds to TATAbox via TBP
A) TFIIA: binds non specifically to DNA and stabilises the DNA/TFIID interaction
B) TFIIB: binds to the promoter assembly
F) a complex of RNA polymerase II and TFIIF binds to the assembly
E/H) finally, TFIIE and TFIIH bind allowing transcription to commence

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14
Q

what is capping
(eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing)

A

guanine is attached in an S-S bond, cap G is methylated in the 7th position

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15
Q

what is polyadenylation
(eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing)

A

adds up to 250 A’s

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16
Q

what is intron splicing
(eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing)

A

joins exons (coding regions) to form a whole gene. eukaryotic pre-mRNA has GT-AC class introns

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17
Q

why are 20 amino acids sufficient

A

because they produce 64 codons

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18
Q

Describe the process of translation in detail

A

1) the small ribosomal subunits attaches to the ribosome binding site in a sequence of 5’ to 3’

2) the small ribosomal subunits moves down stream to the start codon AUG

3) the first transfer RNA Binds

4) the large subunit binds. [requires hydrolysis of.GTP]

5) the second tRNA binds to A site. requires EETu

6) a peptide bond is formed by peptidyl transferase

7) tRNA is freed from the amino acid by tRNA deacylase

8) translocation occurs requires the hydrolysis of GTP again

9) stage 5 to 8, are repeated until

10) a stop codon is encountered [no more tRNA exists]

11) RF1/RF2 Binds, and clears the polypeptide from tRNA in the P site. RF3 co operates

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19
Q

how do you measure the haematocrit

A

Take a blood sample in a tube. The red blood cells sink and the white blood cells are in the middle and the plasma sits on top.

Spin in a centrifuge and the normal red blood cell count is between 40 and 50%

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20
Q

What is anemia?

A

A condition where the blood cannot to transport enough oxygen to the tissues

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21
Q

What is malaria?

A

where some red blood cells have a malaria parasites in them. And eventually the red blood cell is destroyed. There is a low red blood cell count.

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22
Q

what’s haemostasis

A

A process of keeping the blood from being lost from the vascular system. [Stopping bleeding] from clot formation, and tissue repair.

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23
Q

what is hemophilia

A

Insufficient blood clotting

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24
Q

what is thrombosis

A

Weather is too much blood clothing. This prevents blood loss, but can lead to cardiovascular disorder.

25
Q

Capillary exchange: how does oxygen get into tissues and cells and the reverse for carbon dioxide?

A

hemoglobin carries oxygen to the capillaries

At the arterial end, that is a high blood pressure water is pushed out of the blood vessel, and all the fluid is pushed out

Proteins remain in the capillary and produce colloid osmotic pressure. dispose of water in and the colloid pressure is constant.

The bulk of the flow of oxygen and water and glucose out at the arterial end. That is bulk flow of carbon dioxide and waste in on the venue will end.

There is net outflow into the extracellular fluid and about 2 L a day of blood is collected by the lymph assholes

26
Q

What consists of the lymphatic system/vessels?

A

capillaries and valves (to ensure one-way flow)

Lymph vessels

Lymph nodes and valves

27
Q

What is the role of the lymphatic system?

A

It returns to plasma
It is involved in immunity and the creation of antibodies

28
Q

What are five functions of the blood?

A

1) transportation of dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic waste

2) regulation of the pH and electrolytes composition of intestinal fluids throughout the body

3) restriction of fluid losses

4) it is a defense against toxins and pathogens

5) stabilization of body temperature

29
Q

What two things is blood composed of

A

plasma: water, ions, organic molecules, trace elements and vitamins, gases

Cellular elements: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets

30
Q

What is the structure of hemoglobin?

A

It’s consists of full polypeptide chains 2Alpha and 2Beta

The iron ion in the haem is able to reversibly bind to an oxygen molecule

31
Q

What is a white blood cell: neutrophil

A

they are phagocytotic: they engulf bacteria

A high neutrophil count indicates a bacterial infection

32
Q

What are white blood cells: lymphocytes

A

B cells/T cells: they secrete antibodies

A high count suggests an infection

33
Q

what is haematopoiesis

A

blood cell formation

Pluripotent haematopoietic stem cells, uncommitted stem cells, comfifed progenitor cells, lymphocytes stem cells, lymphocytes

34
Q

what is bone marrow?

A

Bone marrow consists of blood cells, in different stages of development and supporting bone tissue, known as the stroma

35
Q

what is erythropoiesis

A

where blood cell maturation is regulated.

36
Q

what is rRNA

A

Ribosomal RNA: the ribosome itself is made of this

37
Q

What are cell surface receptors?

A

Cell surface, receptor proteins are hydrophilic signal molecules that sit in the receptor

38
Q

What are intracellular receptors?

A

small hydrophobic, signal molecules carried into the target cell via a carrier protein. Intracellular receptors are located in the nucleus.

39
Q

What is a ligand?

A

it is a molecule that binds to a receptor

Some receptors only have one ligand whilst other receptors have many

40
Q

What is a fun fact about ligands

A

different ligands can produce different responses at the same receptor

agonist/antagonist

41
Q

What is an intracellular mediator?

A

Proteins that transmit the signal from the receptor to the effect enzymes

42
Q

What are effector enzymes?

A

they bring about changes in the cell by the production of second messengers

43
Q

What are second messages

A

they alter the metabolism or affect effector enzymes that modulate target proteins

44
Q

What are target proteins?

A

they alter gene transcription and cell behavior

45
Q

receptor tyrosine kinases

A

Transmembrane proteins

46
Q

what’s a dimer

A

They consist of two of the same proteins that come together

47
Q

What do kinases do?

A

they had a phosphate to proteins using ATP

48
Q

How is tyrosine phosphorylated by kinase in detail

A

The ligand binding site formed on both molecules of the dimer

Two molecules come together to trap the ligand

This results in two intracellular domains coming together

Then tyrosine is phosphorylated by kinase

49
Q

What is RTK signaling

A

it can use monomeric G proteins as molecular switches

GDP to GTP
GTP binding activates signaling

50
Q

what does phosphorylation and GTP binding do

A

Both act as molecular switches, both can amplify signalling strength, both need turning off

51
Q

what is the MAP kinase cascade (detail)

A

ligand/signal molecule binds
activated RTK
adaptor protein to ras-activating protein
inactive ras protein to active ras protein via GTP
onward transmission of signal
activated MAP kinase x3 (ATP to ADP)
activated MAP kinase x2 (ATP to ADP)
activated MAP kinase

52
Q

what are the three steps in inactivation of receptor signaling?

A

1) signal molecule binds to a receptor protein
2) inactivation of signaling protein
3) production of inhibitory protein

(the complex forms an endsome with lysosomes)

53
Q

What two types of switch does the MAP kinase pathway use

A

1) phosphorylation
2) small monomeric, G proteins

54
Q

what is a GPCR

A

G protein coupled receptor

They are the largest class of human cell surface receptors

55
Q

describe the process of GPCR activation

A

1) Ligand binds to the extracellular site
2) confirmational change occurs to the receptor
3) this recruits, inactive G protein (GDP bound)
4) binding to the receptor releases GDP, which is replaced by GTP
5) Galpha separates to activate signaling Cascades
6) an activated GPCR activates many G proteins

56
Q

what else can G proteins activate

A

cAMP
converts ATP to cAMP
where cAMP is a second messenger

57
Q

what are the cellular effects of Ca2+

A

they activate calmodulin

Activated calmodulin activate calmodulin dependent kinases. Which modulate activity of other proteins.

58
Q

How can G proteins control channel opening [2 ways.]

A

indirectly: second messages, phosphorylation
Directly: binding of to ion channels

59
Q

What are receptor signaling Cascades?

A

they can detect a single molecule of ligand
Transduce this signal across the membrane
Rapidly amplify the signal
Activate a cascade of proteins that bring about cell behaviors

week 10 (Y1) (3 decks)

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