the ontological argument

Question 1

Describe ontological arguments

Answer 1

Deductive, a priori arguments- hold that it is logically necessary for God to exist. Based on logic (therefore a priori) - do not rely on experience.
Attempts to prove God’s existence from the meaning of the word God. The basis of the argument depends on someone’s individual understanding of the nature of God.

Question 2

Ontology

Answer 2

Philosophy that explores the concept of existence. Comes from Greek ‘ontos’ meaning ‘being’. These arguments for God’s existence rely on logic, rather than sensory experience.

Question 3

St Anselm

Answer 3

(1033-1109) - produced the classical argument.
Created ontological argument, not to convert unbelievers, but to demonstrate rationality behind his own faith. Perspective referred to as ‘faith seeking understanding’ and is set out in his ‘Proslogion’.
“If you understand what God means, it is logical to assume he exists”

Question 4

Analytic and Synthetic propositions

Answer 4

Analytic proposition
- A statement which is true by definition. eg. ‘Bachelors are unmarried men’. Anselm believed that ‘God exists’ is analytic as the concept of God includes the concept of existence.

Synthetic proposition- something which adds to our understanding and goes beyond the definition. eg. ‘the animal is brown’ as this does not define the concept of an animal. It only adds to the understanding of the concept of that animal.

Question 5

St Anselm’s Ontological Argument

Answer 5

Proslogion 2
P1: God is a being that than which nothing greater can be conceived.
P2: Even an atheist (‘the fool’) can conceive of God as the greatest possible being (coherent concept existent in our understanding)
P3: It is greater to exist in the understanding and in reality rather than in understanding alone.
C: Therefore, the greatest possible being, God, must exist both in the understanding and in reality.

Question 6

Proof by contradiction

Answer 6

Classical arguments uses proof by contradiction as the assumption that God exists in the mind only would be false if God being TTWNGCBC was not fulfilled, but it is. So God must exist in the mind and reality.

Question 7

Outline argument from Proslogion 2 + critique.

Answer 7

In Anselm’s first argument from Proslogion 2, he asserts that it is known that ‘God is TTWNGCBC’. Things exist either in the mind only or in the mind and reality. If we assume that God exists in the mind only, then it is possible to think of a being greater than God. Then God would not be the greatest being, contradicting the first statement, therefore He must exist in reality.
CRITIQUE: Circular argument and bias.

Question 8

What does Anselm refer to?

Answer 8

Refers to Psalm 53: “The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God’. He thought that God as TTWNGCBC must acknowledge that God exists. He applies this even to atheists, as they have an understanding of what God is.

Supporters use analogy to support Anselm’s Proslogion 2- winning the lottery pales in comparison to actually winning.

Question 9

Proslogion 3

Answer 9

P1: God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived.
P2: Contingent beings are inferior to necessary beings.
P3: Because God is TTWNGCBC, He must have necessary existence.
C: Therefore, God exists necessarily.

Question 10

Proslogion 3 (mathematically)

Answer 10

God (G) is the best thing there is. Contingent beings that depend on others for existence (C) are inferior to necessary beings (N):
N > C. As G is the best thing, G must be N, because GN > GC.

Question 11

What does the Proslogion 3 argument express?

Answer 11

• God must exist because a necessary being cannot fail to exist. Only a contingent being can do this, and necessary existence is part of the definition of God.

Question 12

Anselm’s circular arguments

Answer 12

Could be called this because he uses a previous belief or characteristic attributed to God to try and prove the existence of God. A non-religious person would not be swayed by the arguments he presents as they do not believe in God, or his characteristics, to begin with- so Anselm’s argument loses its basis.

This links to bias as Anselm already believed in God- he is justifying his own beliefs by working backwards.

Question 13

RENE DESCARTES- context

Answer 13

1596-1650
Set out his arguments in his “Meditations”
Cogito ergo sum- doubted he knew anything, only could know he was thinking ‘I think, therefore I am’
Influenced by Plato and Anselm.

Question 14

Descartes’ ontological argument

Answer 14

Reformulates Anselm’s arguments.
Humans are born with innate understanding of what God is- we understand God as a ‘supremely perfect being’, possessing all perfections (must include existence).
Relates to the innate ideas humans are born with about shapes and numbers, for example.

Question 15

Descartes’ analogies

Answer 15

Mountain and valley analogy- a valley is part of the essence of a mountain- you cannot separate the two concepts, as you cannot separate the concepts of God and his existence.

Question 16

Norman Malcolm’s influences

Answer 16

20th century development to ontological argument.

Believed existence is not a predicate (flaw in Descartes’ argument)

He agreed with critiques put forward by Kant and Gaunilo.

Believed Anselm’s second form of the argument could be used to provide a successful ontological argument.

Question 17

What did he argue for the existence of God?

Answer 17

Argued that in order to be God, God must have necessary existence; He could not come into existence if He did not exist already. If God exists at all, He exists in an eternal, necessary way.

Malcolm said it was illogical to say sometimes God exists and sometimes He doesn’t. (must be described as an unlimited being)

Question 18

Malcolm’s argument

Answer 18

Malcolm’s argument:

1. If God does not exist today, then He never can and never will- His existence must be impossible.
2. If God does exist, He must exist necessarily.
3. God’s existence if therefore either impossible or necessary.
4. God’s existence is not impossible. It is not logically contradictory to have the concept of a God who exists.
5. Therefore, given that His existence is not impossible, it must be necessary- so God must exist necessarily.

Question 19

Critique of Malcolm

Answer 19

Argument never widely accepted- it can be said that things don’t exist, without their existence being impossible. It is not illogical to say that ‘maybe there is a God, maybe there isn’t’.

Question 20

Plantinga’s argument

Answer 20

• Differentiated between ‘greatness’ and ‘excellence’.
• Excellence in a particular world depends on its properties in that world- greatness depends on properties in all worlds.
• The greatest possible being must have maximal excellence in every possible world- used concept ‘maximal greatness’
• A being of maximal greatness must exist in all worlds, and therefore this world.

Question 21

Plantinga’s argument (numbered)

Answer 21

1. There is a world in which there is a being that is maximally great.
2. It has maximal excellence (as entailed in maximal greatness)
3. If omnipotent, omniscient and morally perfect, and maximally great, it is existent in our world.
4. Therefore there is a God.