The Nile Valley 1882-98 Flashcards
the suez canal 1869
· Britain worked for at least 75 years before 1869 to keep the French from dominating the Mediterranean.
· When the Suez Canal opened, Britain stood to benefit the most in terms of trade and protecting the empire
· It was therefore vital that the Suez canal remained open for use and therefore that there was s table and reasonably pro-British government in Egypt.
congress of vienna
European meetings to agree new boundaries following the collapse of Napoleonic France and agree long term peace
egypt as a part of the ottoman empire
The ruling governor of Egypt claimed to be the khedive of Egypt
In 1867 the khedive, Ismail Pasha was recognized by the ottoman empire. (before course)
Khedive Ismail bankrupted Egypt in the1870’s and was forced to turn to British and French creditors. E.g. Rothchilds.
khedive ismail pasha handling of the economy
- Khedive Ismail Pasha had relied on English and French investment, mainly in the form of loans, from the 1850s.
- The foreign debt of Egypt increased from £3m to £100m and the economy was bankrupt by 1875-76
british reaction to the bad handling of the economy by pasha
- Britain and France put a system of Dual Control in place:
- Forced Khedive Ismail Pasha to introduce financial reforms
- Reduced interest on foreign debts to 5%
- A British and French controller would manage the financial department of the Egyptian government
- An international commission called the Caisse de la Dette Publique would supervise Egypt’s actions.
- At the same time the number of European people living in Egypt increased dramatically
ismail pasha removal
- By 1879 the Ottoman Empire deposes Khedive Ismail Pasha in favour of his son Tewfik Pasha, the British had a strong influence in this decision – Khedive Tewfik Pasha is much more willing to compromise
the scramble for Africa
In 1879 only 10% of Africa had been directly colonised by European powers.
After 1880 the European powers saw Africa’s commercial and strategic value and sought to colonise the remaining 90%
Following the Berlin conference, Europe by 1900 had acquired 90% if lands in Africa. The scramble ended in British dominance.
reasons for british entering egypt
Growing sense of competitiveness with other imperial powers. They went into other territories that found ither empires threatening to scare them away.
Britin went into Egypt to stop French intervention in the rest of Africa. It was worried about French expansions. went into Sudan, Kenya and Uganda because its worried about other imperial powers; worried about Germany in Kenya. For the British it is necessary to occupy these territories to thwart the others.
british individuals investment in egypt
the british and french intervedntion in the economically bankrupt egypt had made it a source of huge foreign investment, notably briitsh
many mps and british bankers had financial interests in Egypt.
for example, PM gladstone had 37% of his investment portfolio in Egyptian shares.
4 MPs were bondholders in Egypts debts
colonial rivals that the british feared
by the 1880s, Britain’s status as the world’s strongest naval & colonial power was coming under threat.
1) Newly unified Germany (1871) had huge economic potential – under Bismarck Germany avoided challenging Britain directly, but had built a network of European alliances.
2) Russia – since defeat in the Crimean War (1856) Russia had been looking for a warm water port – Britain was determined to prevent them becoming a threat to India and the Middle East.
3) France – although Anglo-French relations were much improved since 1815, France remained Britain’s biggest colonial rival & was looking to build a Trans-Saharan railway.
4) Italy – with ambitions to be a great power, Italy was actively trying to acquire land in North Africa. Italy allied with Germany in the 1882 Triple Alliance
the growth of Egyptian nationalism 1970’s and early 80’s
- Originated in the Egyptian army c1879 with the purpose of eliminating or diminishing European control of Egypt
- A group of Egyptian colonels led by Colonel Arabi Pasha
- Support for this nationalist movement came from liberals, Muslim traditionalists and the peasantry.
- Tewfik Pasha becomes a puppet, as the nationalists take more control of the government
- In 1882 Arabi Pasha became Minister of War and one of his supporters became Prime Minister
why did the french withdraw from egypt
They were concerned about other European powers, Germany, Russia, Italy and Austria had all delivered notes to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire saying there should be no change of government in Egypt without their consent.
Gambetta (French PM) fell from power and was replaced by Charles de Freycinat who was less keen to intervene in Egypt than Gambetta had been.
However, they did not totally withdraw, they saw themselves as having strategic interests in North Africa an would challenge British dominance between 1882 and 1898 on several occasions
reasons why british invaded in 1882
economic - protect the suez canal and trade
fears of egyptian nationalism.
Baring, Gladstone, Lord Sailsbury
The weakness of Khedive Tewfiq Pasha, meant the British were concerned about maintaining Egypt.
The emergence of radical Islam in Sudan worried Britain
info on sir evelyn baring
- Family of Barings Bank
- Lord Cromer
- Arrived in 1877 as British Controller General
- Baring was made consul-general, “with a mandate for minor reforms and a prompt withdrawal of British troops”.
- Baring though advocated for a continued occupation of Egypt and disparaged Egyptian demands for independence
- He said “We need not enquire too closely what these people…think is in their own interests.. it should be decided, by the light of Western knowledge and experience what we think is best for the subject race”
lord salisbury
Conservative prime minister for 13 years in three different terms in the 1880’s and 90’s
he managed to steer British foreign policy successfully during the partition of Africa and during a period of intense international competition between great powers.
He famously said of British foreign policy in the 1860’s that ‘English policy is to float lazily downstream, occasionally putting out a diplomatic boathook to avoid collisions’ . - policy of ‘splendid isolationism’
He was prepared to sacrifice building projects in Egypt if he could protect British interests in Egypt.
what is a veiled protectorate
A protectorate is a territory given some local autonomy/independence; it has local rulers rather than a colonial governror. However, it is controlled by another state which offers it ‘protection’, usually in a mutual treaty.
politics that suggest veiled protectorate
In reality the British Consul-General had effective power.
Sir Evelyn Baring (Consul-General 1882–1907) appointed British Under-Secretaries to most Egyptian ministers.
The Granville Doctrine meant advice had to be followed.
Contrary to Dufferin’s suggestion of including Egyptians in government, over the years of occupation the numbers of Britons in government increased. By 1905 there were around 1,000 British officials in office. This increased British commitment to Egypt and the idea of a 5 year occupation was not administratively possible.
politics that suggest NOT a veiled protectoratge
Khedive Tewfiq Pasha (1882–92) consented to the unofficial British Protectorate.
He was nominally still head of Egypt’s government – he appointed all ministers.
All Egyptian ministers and officials wore the Ottoman fez – in theory they gave orders.
The Consul-General & British Under-Secretaries gave advice – not orders – to ministers.
Egypt appeared to have democracy.
On May 1, 1883, the Khedive set up two Houses of Parliament in Egypt: a Legislative Council and a General Assembly.
Very limited franchise – only Egyptian property owners had the vote
economy arguments for veiled protectorate
Baring introduced stringent financial controls & made cuts in public spending.
The British Under-secretary, Sir Edgar Vincent, had to work within the constraints of the international Caisse.
Of the £9 million loan from the French & British to Egypt (agreed at the 1885 London conference), £8 million was spent on stabilising the debt situation to ensure debt repayment, & £1 million on irrigation & draining canals.
He put off much needed land tax reforms.
economy arguments that egypt was NOT a veiled protectorate
Baring restored the government of Egypt to solvency by 1887. This avoided French involvement in Egyptian affairs.
arguments in terms of law and order for a veiled protectorate
Baring disbanded the Egyptian Army and reformed it, though on British lines, under British leadership.
He also disbanded & re-organised the Egyptian police force.
A British garrison was maintained in Cairo to keep order in the interim.
things that changed over time that led to the argument of a veiled protectorate
Officially Baring had a ‘rescue and retire’ mission.
If Egypt could be made stable the British would leave.
As well as economic and political reform, Baring made efforts to stamp out corruption and improve public works.
Markedly education was NOT significantly improved.
However Baring reasserted the Granville Doctrine and by 1899 had largely succeeded in persuading Abbas to support him publicly.
things that changed over time that led to the argument that there was NOT a veiled protectorate
Tewfiq Pasha died in Jan 1892, succeeded as Khedive by Abbas II.
Abbas resented the degree of British interference in Egypt.
He appointed French advisers who encouraged him to ignore British advice (e.g. his 1894 criticisms of the reformed army).
Secretly however Abbas created, supported and funded a new Egyptian nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil.
He funded an anti-British newspaper and a nationalist political party – the Umma Party.
By 1898 this nationalist movement was small, but growing.
barings attitudes to egypt
Shared the public-school background and views of many British imperialists
Convinced of the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon
Believed he knew what was best for the Egyptians
Thought that the future of Egypt rested on its agriculture.
Who was Lord Dufferin, and why was he important in Egypt?
Lord Dufferin was a British diplomat sent to Egypt in 1882 to advise on governance after the British occupation.
His importance lies in his 1883 report recommending a system of indirect rule.
He argued Britain should support Egyptian reform, include Egyptians in administration, and then withdraw once stability was restored. His ideas shaped early British policy but were later ignored as British control deepened.
What did the Dufferin Report (1883) recommend for the governance of Egypt?
The Dufferin Report recommended that Britain should reform Egypt’s political and economic systems, include Egyptians in government, and gradually withdraw once stability was achieved.
It emphasized indirect rule through a mix of British advisors and Egyptian officials, aiming to avoid direct annexation.
The report advocated for political stability, administrative reform, and the creation of a more efficient Egyptian civil service.
What was the significance of the Dufferin Report (1883) in British imperial policy?
The Dufferin Report outlined a plan for Egypt to remain formally independent while informally controlled by Britain—setting the stage for Egypt as a “veiled protectorate.”
It emphasized temporary British presence, indirect rule, and institutional reform. However, over time, Britain increased its control, contradicting Dufferin’s intentions.
The report is a key example of how British imperialism operated through subtle, unofficial means.
baring response to dufferin repor
baring accepted in full the reccomendations
key 3 baring undersecretaries
· Sir Edgar Vincent to help manage Egypt’s finances
· Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, an experienced engineer, to help manage its public works
· Clifford Lloyd to help reorganise Egypt’s police and justice system.
what did the granville doctrine do
Whenever an Egyptian minister resisted the British Under Secretary’s recommendations, Baring or the Under Secretary, with the compliant Khedive’s approval, could dismiss the minister.
2 times granville doctrine was used / threatened to be used
November 1883 Baring forced the Prime Minister to resign after he disagreed with Baring’s announcement that there would be no further incursions in to the rebellious Sudan to restore order.
1888 Scott-Moncrieff threatened the Public Works Minister with dismissal if he did not help stamp out corruption.
baring attitude to existing egyptian army and police
Baring did not trust the Egyptian army as they had followed Arabi. He disbanded the army, reorganising it completely and training new recruits using British methods.
Clifford Lloyd worked to reorganise the police force, disbanding the old service and using British police officers to train and organise the new Egyptian force.
who was sir colin Scott-Moncreif
Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff was one of the most successful British Under-Secretaries in Egypt.
Appointed in late 1883, he was tasked with improving Egypt’s dilapidated systems of dams and canals.
He faced significant challenges, including limited finance and the harsh corvée labor system, but his work was pivotal in Egypt’s infrastructure development.
what difficulties did moncreif face
Faced financial constraints and had to threaten resignation twice to secure funds.
Confronted the corvée system (forced labor), with 150,000 peasants working without pay.
Successfully ended the corvée system and contracted out dredging of canals.
His efforts were supported by Sir Evelyn Baring, who convinced the British government to provide necessary funding.
what were the results of moncreifs work by 1882
385 miles of new canals constructed.
300 miles of old canals reconstructed.
Built 100 new bridges, sluices, and tunnels.
Improved irrigation, boosting Egypt’s cotton industry.
Helped reduce the spread of cholera, improving public health.
Played a crucial role in revitalizing Egypt’s economy and agriculture.
sir edgar vincent
Sir Edgar Vincent a talented young Under Secretary for Finance. Vincent had to work within the constraints laid down by the Caisse, the international body set up in 1877 to regulate Egypt’s finances after the Khedive was declared bankrupt.
Vincent succeeded in persuading the French to agree to a further £9,000,000 loan to Egypt at the 1885 London Conference, along with funds to pay for Moncrieff’s public works and wages to end the corvee.
arguments that baring did not make a positive contribution to the government of egypt. political reasons
Belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority
No understanding of the nature and extent of nationalism in Egypt.
Baring looked at Egypt from the perspective of British economic, diplomatic and political interests.
the ‘Mahdi’
- In Sudan in 1881 Muhammad Ahmad, a Muslim cleric, declared he was ‘the Mahdi’ (‘ Right Guided One’) – the promised redeemer of the Islamic world.
- Between 1881 and 1885 he led a revolt against Turco-Egyptian rule, culminating in the Mahdiya (Islamic State)
- He went on to lead a successful war against Egyptian rule in Sudan which culminated in a remarkable victory in the Siege of Khartoum. He created a vast Islamic state extending from the Red Sea to Central Africa, and founded a movement that remained influential in Sudan a century later.
- The Mahdi Revolt was regarded as anti-Egyptian, as well as Islamic fundamentalism.
why was the ‘mahdi’ successful
He was a charismatic leader who quickly gained a large following in Sudan
The experience of British imperial control led to the yearning for a perfect Islamic state
The Mahdi effectively led a jihad against Egyptian rule.
the hicks expedition 1883
- A series of Egyptian attempts to regain control of Sudan in 1881-2 all failed disastrously.
- Colonel Hicks had served in the Indian Rebellion so seemed perfect for the job.
- The British gave approval to the 8,000 strong Hicks Expedition in Sep 1883 to recapture Sudan from the Mahdi for Egypt…
the battle of el obeid 1883
- Hicks and all but 300 Egyptian Army he commanded were slaughtered by the Mahdi at the Battle of El Obeid.
- Lost because using Egyptian prisoners as troops who were reluctant to fight.
- 5,000 camels with supplies & mountain, field & machine guns pulled along – a slow expedition; their guides led them astray & surrounded by Mahdi forces; with low morale, many of the regular Egyptian soldiers fled but were slaughtered;
- The Mahdi therefore tightened their grip on Sudan.
the Mahdi and sudan
Since 1819 Sudan under Turco-Egyptian control. Betterly resented by Sudan’s tribes
The Mahdi revolt was revolt was regarded as anti-Egyptian, as well as Islamic fundamentalism
The British occupation of Egypt in 1882 further enflamed this resentment at foreign rule
By 1833 the Mahdi had taken over a swathe of Sudan
