The Neural Basis for Cognition

Question 1

Where are the sites of damage in patients with Capgras Syndrome?

Answer 1

Temporal lobe → disrupts circuits in the amygdala (less emotional connection to familiar faces)
Right prefrontal cortex → less able to keep track of what is real and what is not

Question 2

What do we learn from Capgras Syndrome?

Answer 2

The amygdala plays a crucial role in supporting the feeling of familiarity, as well as remembering emotional events in one’s life
Simple processing involves multiple brain regions

Question 3

What are the three main structures of the brain?

Answer 3

Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain

Question 4

Where is the hindbrain located, what does it include, and what does it do?

Answer 4

Located at the top of the spinal cord
Includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla
Responsible for key life functions

Question 5

What does the midbrain do?

Answer 5

Coordinates precise eye movements
Relays auditory information from the ears to the forebrain
Regulates pain experiences

Question 6

Where is the forebrain located and what does it include?

Answer 6

Surrounds midbrain and most of hindbrain (divided into cerebral hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure)
Includes cortex (outer surface of forebrain), forelobes, and subcortical structures

Question 7

What are convolutions?

Answer 7

The wrinkles on the surface of the cortex

Question 8

What are the different lobes and where are they located?

Answer 8

Frontal lobes - front of the brain, right behind the forehead
Parietal lobes - the brain’s topmost part
Temporal lobes - underneath the lateral fissure (divides temporal and frontal lobes)
Occipital lobes - very back of the brain, connected to parietal and temporal lobes

Question 9

What are the subcortical structures and what do they do?

Answer 9

Thalamus - sensory relay station for nearly all sensory information going to the cortex
Hypothalamus - controls behaviors serving biological needs
Limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus) - essential for learning and memory

Question 10

How do the two sides of the brain work together?

Answer 10

Commissures - thick bundles of fiber that carry information between hemispheres
Largest commissure is the corpus callosum

Question 11

How do we gather evidence about the brain?

Answer 11

Neuropsychology
Neuroimaging techniques
Electrical recordings

Question 12

How does neuropsychology provide evidence about the brain?

Answer 12

Lesions (specific areas of damage) impact particular brain functions (i.e. damage to the left side of the frontal lobe is likely to produce disruptions in language)

Question 13

What neuroimaging techniques provide evidence about the brain? (4)

Answer 13

Structural neuroimaging techniques:
Computerized axial tomography (CT) - X-ray
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - magnetic properties of brain tissue
Functional neuroimaging techniques:
Positron emission tomography (PET) - tracer substance
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - oxygen content

Question 14

How does electrical recording provide information about the brain?

Answer 14

Electroencephalogram (EEG) - provides recordings of electrical communication within neurons (between neurons is chemical)
Can study broad rhythms or responses to particular stimuli - event-related potentials (ERPs)

Question 15

What are some examples of manipulating brain function in order to study brain function?

Answer 15

Observing chemical effects on neurotransmitters
Electrical stimulation
Gene manipulation

Question 16

How is the fusiform face area (FFA) related to combining techniques to study brain function?

Answer 16

FFA is especially active when a face is presented → correlation between FFA activity and mental activity (perceiving a face), unsure of causality → need other data to ensure causality (i.e. lesioning)

Question 17

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and how does it provide causal data?

Answer 17

TMS releases magnetic pulses that activate neurons, in turn producing temporary lesions → determines whether a particular brain area is necessary for a particular function

Question 18

What is the localization of function?

Answer 18

Localization of function is the effort to determine the function of specific brain structures (i.e. looking and visualizing use a lot of the same structures)

Question 19

What are primary sensory projection areas?

Answer 19

Arrival points in the motor cortex for signals from the sensory

Question 20

What are primary motor projection areas?

Answer 20

Departure points in the motor cortex for signals that control muscle movement

Question 21

What does contralateral control mean?

Answer 21

The left hemisphere being stimulated produces behavior in the right side of the body and vice versa

Question 22

What are the sensory areas?

Answer 22

Somatosensory area - skin sensations
Primary auditory cortex - auditory sensations
Primary visual cortex - visual sensations

Question 23

What are the principles of organization for the sensory areas?

Answer 23

Contralateral organization
Cortical space assigned based on acuity/sensitivity

Question 24

What can damage to the association areas result in?

Answer 24

Apraxia - disturbances in the initiation or organization of voluntary action
Agnosia - not being able to name something
Unilateral neglect syndrome - ignoring half of the visual world
Aphasia - disruptions to language capacities

Question 25

What are the basic parts of a neuron?

Answer 25

Dendrites - detect incoming signals from other neurons
Cell body - contains the nucleus and other cellular machinery
Axon - transmits signals to other neurons

Question 26

How is information passed through a neuron?

Answer 26

Action potential → axon terminal (neuron converts electrical info → chemical info)

Question 27

How do neurotransmitters change the postsynaptic membrane?

Answer 27

Neurotransmitters create sufficient ionic flow to surpass the cell’s threshold, producing an action potential

Question 28

What is the all-or-none law?

Answer 28

Action potentials either fire or they don’t - they are always the same magnitude (but can fire at higher rates depending on the stimulus)
Myelin sheath maintains magnitude of action potential throughout neuron

Question 29

How is information represented by neurons?

Answer 29

Coding - specific neurons can represent specific stimuli, or patterns of activation can represent ideas or memories (“pattern coding”)