The Nature of Warfare 1700-1900 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe continuity (composition of armies) between c1700-c1850.

A
  • A permanent standing army of around 50,000 men, more in times of war.
  • The decline of cavalry continued, now only about 20% of the army.
  • Artillery formed 5%
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2
Q

Describe the change (composition of armies) between c1850-c1900.

A
  • Growth of British Empire meant more soldiers needed : numbers reached 250,000 by 1899.
  • Governments were more involved in organising the army size and finances.
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3
Q

Was there professionalism and specialisation in the c1700 armies? Give evidence.

A

No, not as professional as in the 1900s.

  • Many soldiers were pressed into service.
  • Marched or rode in bright uniform.
  • Infantry all armed with muskets and bayonets.
  • Support came from heavy, immobile cannons.
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4
Q

Was there professionalism and specialisation in the c1900 armies? Give evidence.

A

Yes, armed forces transformed into a professional organisation with a fixed term of enlistment.

  • Command structures clearly defined, with specialist regiments and more effective leadership structures.
  • Wore camoflaged uniforms.
  • Transported to battle via steamships/trains.
  • New weapons (rifles + machine guns) led to specialised roles within the infantry.
  • Long-distance + light field artillery bombarded the enemy.
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5
Q

Describe the continuity of roles on the battlefield between c1700-c1900.

A

Cavalry : still important for reconnaissance and harassing the enemy however vulnerable to rifles/machine guns.

Infantry : still the decisive factor in battle.

Infantry : the “Brown Bess” musket used from 1715-1850.

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6
Q

Describe the continuity of the tactics on the battlefield between c1700-c1900.

A

Cavalry : officers determined to keep traditional cavalry forces, seeing change as an attack on privilege.

Infantry : still fought in lines, columns and sqaures.

Infantry : loading times improved - four-deep lines replaced with longer two-deep lines, firing a volley every 20 seconds.

Infantry : still sent to face overwhelming firepower between 1850 and 1900; generals would rely on old ideas about how to fight refusing to accept the changing situation.

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7
Q

Describe training in the period between c1700-c1900.

A
  • Various efforts made to improve training, however made little impact due to social attitudes.
  • Officers thought they new best, resenting interference. So, little improvement had taken place by 1850.
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8
Q

Describe the use of rifles and bullets.

A

Rifles : invented in the 16th century; from 1850 technological improvements made them more effective and practical.

Minié bullets : invented in 1847, these small bullets expanded within the barrel, making loading easier.

Conical bullets : more aerodynamic, these increased range of rifles.

Percussion bullets : made loading easier and rifles more reliable by ending their reliance on powder and flint.

Breech-loading : Made reloading four times quicker than with muskets.

Magazines : allowed several bullets to be loaded at once.

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9
Q

How did changes in weaponry impact tactics and formations?

A
  • Battle of Waterloo, 1815, the British infantry formed sqaures to repel the enemy.
  • By the Crimean War, 1853-56, the musket was replaced by percussion rifles. It increased range and accuracy meant a new defence was needed.
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10
Q

Describe the development of trench warfare.

A
  • Crimean War : systems of trenches gave protection to enemy fire.
  • Troops + supplies could move near to the front line without being exposed to gunfire.
  • Defending forces chose the protection of the trench over mobility. The power of defensive fire was greater than that of an attacking force.
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11
Q

What were machine guns? When were they introduced?

A
  • Small cannon-like guns, called Gatling guns, which fired as many as 150 bpm.
  • Smaller, more practical machine guns like the Maxim in use by the 1880s and could be moved by one man.
  • Machine guns introduced into British Army in 1889, but had the most after 1900.
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12
Q

Describe the development and improvement of light field artillery (field guns).

A
  • John “Iron Mad” Wilkinson made thinner and lighter cannon barrels.
  • Experiments with bronze made cannons even lighter, with lighter carriages.
  • This meant lighter, horse-drawn field guns could be used across the battlefield and moved quickly.
  • By 1890, field guns designed so they recoiled which made firing quicker and easier.
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13
Q

Describe the development and improvement of heavy artillery.

A
  • Steel cannon were stronger than bronze.
  • Breech-loading cannon reloaded five times faster than previous muzzle-loading cannons.
  • Cannon with rifled barrels increased the range from hundreds of metres to 5km.
  • From the 1890s, smokeless powder stopped smoke affecting aim or revealing position.
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14
Q

Explain some factors which was affecting the rate of the change.

A

Spiralling change : when one country improved weaponry, others would race to get one better.

Social attitudes : conservatism, fear and cost.

Political attitudes : the upheaval of the French Revolution made governments uneasy about change.

Individuals : Wellington resisted change as a threat to his social class; inventors such as Wilkinson promoted change.

Industrialisation : improvements in science, technology and industry.

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15
Q

In what period did industrialisation have a signifcant impact on warfare?

A

c1850-c1900

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16
Q

How steam-powered transport have an impact on warfare?

A

Changes in transport enabled armies to operate further from home by taking steam trains and steamships to their destination.

17
Q

Describe the advantages of the steam train.

A
  • Steam railways enabled troops to move 15 times faster than they could on foot.
  • Supplies could be moved at 20mph rather than 10 miles a day in wagons.
  • First military railway laid by the British at Balaclava in the Crimea.
18
Q

Describe the advantages of steamships.

A
  • Steamships with screw propellers sailed twice as fast as sailing ships.
  • Requisitioned steamships took less than three weeks to ship men and supplies to the Crimea.
  • Steamships were used for the first time in the Crimean War. Specialised coastal attack craft and new defensive techniques, like iron clad exteriors, were developed.
19
Q

Explain the developments in science.

A
  1. The development of fulminate of mercury provided the explosive that led to percussion bullets.
  2. The invention of the chemical nitroglycerine led to the development of smokeless gunpowder.
20
Q

Explain how old and new technology was being used alongside each other.

A

Period after 1850, horses were still used alongside new steam trains and ships; the “Brown Bess” musket was used alongside newer rifles.

21
Q

Explain how communications were developed?

A
  • Electric telegraph had a significant impact on communication. Governments and army generals used the telegraph to contact generals on campaign.
  • Newspaper reporters relied on telegraph information to write their reports.
  • In 1854, the British started a Military Telegraph detachment within the Royal Engineers where they built and operated the first field telegraph : a network connected to eight telegraph stations across the Crimean battlefront.
22
Q

Describe how mass production had a signifcant impact on warfare.

A
  • By 1850s, metal production had improved, making plenty of iron and steel at low cost.
  • The introduction of factory production lines led to the mass production of identical parts.
  • These developments enabled the government to equip the whole army with standardised, reliable equipment at a fraction of the cost.
23
Q

Explain the roles of individuals who played a part in the rapid change of industrialisation.

A

1774 : Wilkinson patented a more accurate boring method for creating lighter cannon barrels.

1856 : Bessemer patented a method of mass-producing steel cheaply, reducing the price from £60 to £7 per ton.

1857 : Armstrong pioneered the breech-loading, rifled “Armstrong gun” used throughout the British Army.

1884 : Maxim developed the Maxim machine gun, which used the firing recoil to reload the firing chamber allowing a belt of 500 bullets to be fired before reloading.