The Nature of Warfare 1700-1900 Flashcards
Describe continuity (composition of armies) between c1700-c1850.
- A permanent standing army of around 50,000 men, more in times of war.
- The decline of cavalry continued, now only about 20% of the army.
- Artillery formed 5%
Describe the change (composition of armies) between c1850-c1900.
- Growth of British Empire meant more soldiers needed : numbers reached 250,000 by 1899.
- Governments were more involved in organising the army size and finances.
Was there professionalism and specialisation in the c1700 armies? Give evidence.
No, not as professional as in the 1900s.
- Many soldiers were pressed into service.
- Marched or rode in bright uniform.
- Infantry all armed with muskets and bayonets.
- Support came from heavy, immobile cannons.
Was there professionalism and specialisation in the c1900 armies? Give evidence.
Yes, armed forces transformed into a professional organisation with a fixed term of enlistment.
- Command structures clearly defined, with specialist regiments and more effective leadership structures.
- Wore camoflaged uniforms.
- Transported to battle via steamships/trains.
- New weapons (rifles + machine guns) led to specialised roles within the infantry.
- Long-distance + light field artillery bombarded the enemy.
Describe the continuity of roles on the battlefield between c1700-c1900.
Cavalry : still important for reconnaissance and harassing the enemy however vulnerable to rifles/machine guns.
Infantry : still the decisive factor in battle.
Infantry : the “Brown Bess” musket used from 1715-1850.
Describe the continuity of the tactics on the battlefield between c1700-c1900.
Cavalry : officers determined to keep traditional cavalry forces, seeing change as an attack on privilege.
Infantry : still fought in lines, columns and sqaures.
Infantry : loading times improved - four-deep lines replaced with longer two-deep lines, firing a volley every 20 seconds.
Infantry : still sent to face overwhelming firepower between 1850 and 1900; generals would rely on old ideas about how to fight refusing to accept the changing situation.
Describe training in the period between c1700-c1900.
- Various efforts made to improve training, however made little impact due to social attitudes.
- Officers thought they new best, resenting interference. So, little improvement had taken place by 1850.
Describe the use of rifles and bullets.
Rifles : invented in the 16th century; from 1850 technological improvements made them more effective and practical.
Minié bullets : invented in 1847, these small bullets expanded within the barrel, making loading easier.
Conical bullets : more aerodynamic, these increased range of rifles.
Percussion bullets : made loading easier and rifles more reliable by ending their reliance on powder and flint.
Breech-loading : Made reloading four times quicker than with muskets.
Magazines : allowed several bullets to be loaded at once.
How did changes in weaponry impact tactics and formations?
- Battle of Waterloo, 1815, the British infantry formed sqaures to repel the enemy.
- By the Crimean War, 1853-56, the musket was replaced by percussion rifles. It increased range and accuracy meant a new defence was needed.
Describe the development of trench warfare.
- Crimean War : systems of trenches gave protection to enemy fire.
- Troops + supplies could move near to the front line without being exposed to gunfire.
- Defending forces chose the protection of the trench over mobility. The power of defensive fire was greater than that of an attacking force.
What were machine guns? When were they introduced?
- Small cannon-like guns, called Gatling guns, which fired as many as 150 bpm.
- Smaller, more practical machine guns like the Maxim in use by the 1880s and could be moved by one man.
- Machine guns introduced into British Army in 1889, but had the most after 1900.
Describe the development and improvement of light field artillery (field guns).
- John “Iron Mad” Wilkinson made thinner and lighter cannon barrels.
- Experiments with bronze made cannons even lighter, with lighter carriages.
- This meant lighter, horse-drawn field guns could be used across the battlefield and moved quickly.
- By 1890, field guns designed so they recoiled which made firing quicker and easier.
Describe the development and improvement of heavy artillery.
- Steel cannon were stronger than bronze.
- Breech-loading cannon reloaded five times faster than previous muzzle-loading cannons.
- Cannon with rifled barrels increased the range from hundreds of metres to 5km.
- From the 1890s, smokeless powder stopped smoke affecting aim or revealing position.
Explain some factors which was affecting the rate of the change.
Spiralling change : when one country improved weaponry, others would race to get one better.
Social attitudes : conservatism, fear and cost.
Political attitudes : the upheaval of the French Revolution made governments uneasy about change.
Individuals : Wellington resisted change as a threat to his social class; inventors such as Wilkinson promoted change.
Industrialisation : improvements in science, technology and industry.
In what period did industrialisation have a signifcant impact on warfare?
c1850-c1900
How steam-powered transport have an impact on warfare?
Changes in transport enabled armies to operate further from home by taking steam trains and steamships to their destination.
Describe the advantages of the steam train.
- Steam railways enabled troops to move 15 times faster than they could on foot.
- Supplies could be moved at 20mph rather than 10 miles a day in wagons.
- First military railway laid by the British at Balaclava in the Crimea.
Describe the advantages of steamships.
- Steamships with screw propellers sailed twice as fast as sailing ships.
- Requisitioned steamships took less than three weeks to ship men and supplies to the Crimea.
- Steamships were used for the first time in the Crimean War. Specialised coastal attack craft and new defensive techniques, like iron clad exteriors, were developed.
Explain the developments in science.
- The development of fulminate of mercury provided the explosive that led to percussion bullets.
- The invention of the chemical nitroglycerine led to the development of smokeless gunpowder.
Explain how old and new technology was being used alongside each other.
Period after 1850, horses were still used alongside new steam trains and ships; the “Brown Bess” musket was used alongside newer rifles.
Explain how communications were developed?
- Electric telegraph had a significant impact on communication. Governments and army generals used the telegraph to contact generals on campaign.
- Newspaper reporters relied on telegraph information to write their reports.
- In 1854, the British started a Military Telegraph detachment within the Royal Engineers where they built and operated the first field telegraph : a network connected to eight telegraph stations across the Crimean battlefront.
Describe how mass production had a signifcant impact on warfare.
- By 1850s, metal production had improved, making plenty of iron and steel at low cost.
- The introduction of factory production lines led to the mass production of identical parts.
- These developments enabled the government to equip the whole army with standardised, reliable equipment at a fraction of the cost.
Explain the roles of individuals who played a part in the rapid change of industrialisation.
1774 : Wilkinson patented a more accurate boring method for creating lighter cannon barrels.
1856 : Bessemer patented a method of mass-producing steel cheaply, reducing the price from £60 to £7 per ton.
1857 : Armstrong pioneered the breech-loading, rifled “Armstrong gun” used throughout the British Army.
1884 : Maxim developed the Maxim machine gun, which used the firing recoil to reload the firing chamber allowing a belt of 500 bullets to be fired before reloading.
