The Nature and Nurture of Sex and Gender Flashcards
Heritability estimate
A statistic that specifies the proportion of total population variance in a given trait that is due to genetic differences among the general population. Heritability estimates (signified by h2) can range from 0% to 100%.
Intersex
Individuals for whom the biological components of sex (chromosomes, hormones, and internal and external genitalia) do not fit either the typical male pattern or the typical female pattern.
Genes
Basic units of heredity passed down from parents to offspring, consisting of specific sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that carry instructions for the offspring’s characteristics.
Gene-by-environment interaction
When a genetic effect on a trait or bx emerges only under certain environmental circumstances or when the environmental effect on a trait or bx depends on a person’s genetic makeup.
Genetics
The study of genes (the basic units of heredity) and how physical traits are inherited.
Epigenetics
The study of the biological mechanisms that guide whether or not certain genes get expressed.
Microbiome
The complex system of microbial microorganisms that lives inside the human body.
Gut-brain axis
Bidirectional communications that take place between the brain and the GI tract.
Sex differentiation
The complex processes that unfold as sex-undifferentiated embryos transition into individuals with male, female, or intersex internal and external genitalia.
Chromosomes
Organized units of genes inside the cells of all living organisms. Somatic cells in the human body have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and reproductive cells have 23 unpaired chromosomes.
Gonads
The sex organs (ovaries and testes) that produce sex cells (egg and sperm) and sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone).
Genital ridge
The precursor of female or male gonads (ovaries or testes). It appears identical in genetic female and male embryos.
Hormones
Chemical substances in the body that regulate bodily fx such as digestion, growth, & reproduction.
Mini-puberty
A period from birth to about 6 mos. in which boys experience surges in testosterone & girls experience surges in testosterone & estrogen
XO* (Turner’s syndrome)
*The “O” indicates that the second sex chromosome is missing, partially missing, or structurally altered.
- chromosomal condition @ 23 chromosome pair
- fertilization of ovum by sperm w/ no sex chromosome
- typical gender identity is female but does not develop female sex characteristics due to lack of estrogen
- no functional ovaries
- receives estrogen treatments
- acts more girly than XX females
- less athletic, more interested in girly things; wants marriage & children more than XX girls
- normal to higher than average IQ
- visual, spatial, math deficits
- infertile
- shorter than average
- female-typical external genitalia
- undeveloped sex organs @ puberty
- increased risk for heart defects, diabetes, & hearing problems
XXX (triple X syndrome)
- typical gender id is female
- fertile
- taller than average
- female-typical internal & external anatomy
- increased risk for language delays & learning disabilities
- chromosomal condition @ pair 23 chromosome pair
XXX (triple X syndrome)
- typical gender id is female
- fertile
- taller than average
- female-typical internal & external anatomy
- increased risk for language delays & learning disabilities
- chromosomal condition @ pair 23 chromosome
XXY (Klinefelter syndrome)
- extra chromosome
- look externally male
- 1 out of 800 births
- abnormal ovum or sperm
- taller, disproportionately long arms & legs
- enlarged breasts & smaller penis & testes than XY males
- infertile
- social & gender id problems
- overrepresented in prison populations
- have more cognitive deficits than general population
- chromosomal condition @ pair 23 chromosome
XYY (Jacob’s syndrome)
- chromosomal condition @ pair 23 chromosome
- fertile
- tall & thin
- tend to have severe acne in adolescence & high testosterone levels
- increased risk for speech & reading delays
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
- hormonal condition
- fetus’ adrenal glands overproduce androgens
- masculinization of XX fetuses’ external genitalia
- bx different in females
- when in females, level of androgens is abnormal
- -better spatial skills
- -prefer active & rough play
1. born w/ masculine appearing genitals, undergo surgery to correct this
2. parents know about masculine appearing genitals, so might treat these girls differently than girls without masculine genitals
Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS)
-hormonal condition
-XY, but cannot process androgens
-1 out of every 20,000 births
-external genitalia appear female
-internal male gonads (testes)
-shortened vaginas… surgically lengthened in life
-don’t differ from XX females
-need hormone therapy (have no ovaries; don’t produce estrogen; cannot menstruate)
-infertile due to lack of ovaries & uterus
pain w/ sexual penetration due to shortened vagina
-psychological problems… depression, treated as a specimen by medical profession, feeling alone/ unique, sadness from infertility, not being told about their condition until later in life & feeling betrayed by this
-genetic males typically id as female
Genitalia
Internal & external reproductive organs. For females, these include the cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, & ovaries (internal) & the labia & the clitoris (external). For males, these include the seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and the testes (internal) & the penis & scrotum (external).
Genital tubercle
The undifferentiated embryonic structure that becomes the clitoris or the penis.
Partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS)
- hormonal condition
- clinically relevant in genetic males
- gender id may either be male or female
- variations in fertility
- minimal body hair
- enlarged breasts
- atypical external genitalia (enlarged clitoris or small penis)
Optimal sex
The binary (male or female) sex perceived to be most advantageous to assign to a newborn whose genitalia appear atypical at birth
Gender confirmation procedures
Procedures (including hormone treatments, surgeries, speech therapies, & psychotherapies) that transgender individuals sometimes seek to bring their physical bodies into greater alignment w/ their psychological identities
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
An imaging procedure that uses magnetic fields & radio waves to create high-resolution images of brain structures
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields & radio waves to map brain activity
Machine learning
A method of data analysis that trains computers how to detect patterns, & learn from data, w/ minimal human intervention
Plasticity (or neuroplasticity)
The ability of the brain to reorganize & adapt physically throughout life in response to life experiences & environmental factors
Neurosexism
Interpreting the findings from neuroscience research in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes w/o valid supporting evidence
Evolutionary psychology
A theoretical approach that explains much of human thought & bx in terms of genetically heritable adaptations that evolved bc they helped ancestral humans survive & reproduce
Biosocial constructionist theory
A theory that explains how biological differences btw women & men lead to sex-based labor divisions in society, which then shape the development of role-relevant skills & gender stereotypes
Natural selection
The evolutionary process by which heritable features that increase the likelihood of an organism’s survival get passed down through genes
Sexual selection
The evolutionary process by which heritable features that increase the likelihood of successful mating get passed down through genes
Intrasexual selection
The process by which heritable features get passed down bc they give an animal a competitive edge in contests against same-sex animals for access to mates
Intersexual selection
The process by which heritable features get passed down bc they give an animal an advantage by increasing its attractiveness to other-sex mates
Parental investment theory
Theory proposing that the sex that invests more in parenting (usually female) will be more selective in its choice of mates & will prefer mates w/ social status & resources
Biosocial constructionist theory
Integrates the roles of distal (distant) biological factors & proximal (close) social & cultural influences in explaining sex differences & similarities in bx & traits.
-Women’s reproductive activities (pregnancy & nursing) make it less efficient for them to do jobs that require them to be away from home for long periods of time & more efficient for them to perform domestic activities that keep them close to nursing infants & young children.
