The Mind Flashcards
What is the CNS and what are the parts of it?
The Central Nervous System consisting of The brain and spinal cord.
The spinal cord is a long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) protects the CNS
What is the PNS and what are the parts of it?
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that exit the CNS and they carry sensor and motor information to and from the rest of the body
It is not fastened in bone
So the CNS is protected by bone but the PNS is not
The Spinal Cord: CNS
Its only 2% weight of the entire CNS
Its functions are vital, as evidenced by functional challenges accompanying spinal damage
Serves as cable for information flowing to and from the brain along large bundles of nerve fibers
Spinal Reflexes: Reflexes initiated by the spinal cord without assistance from the brain ( Ex. knee jerk reflex)
Types of Neurons
There are three types of nerve cells or neurons
Sensory Neurons: Carry information from the external environment or from the body back to the CNS
Motor Neurons: carry commands from the CNS back to the muscles and glands of the body
Neurons travel through the spinal cord
The Brainstem: CNS
Brainstem: Contains the midbrain, pons and medulla
Medulla: Lies just above the spinal cord and it contains large bundles of nerve fibers that travel to and from higher brain levels
- It manages essential functions such as heart rate respiration and blood pressure
- Damage to this area usually resulted in quick death
Pons: Relay center located between the medulla and the midbrain
- Involved with management of sleep, thrill/exhilaration and facial expressions
- Connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
The Brainstem: CNS
Cerebellum: Participates in skilled movements and in humans it does complex cognitive processing
- Maintains balance and motor coordination, affected by alcohol
Midbrain: Lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres; Involved in sensory reflexes, pain and movement
Reticular Formation: A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem. It participates in mood, thrill/exhilaration and sleep.
What are part of the Subcortical Structures: CNS
Subcortical = Below the cortex
Thalamus = Involved with the processing of sensory information ( sensory relay center)
Basal ganglia = A collection of subcortical structures That participate in the control of voluntary movement ( affect in Parkinson’s disease)
Hypothalamus = Involved in motivation and homeostasis Through regulating There is temperature Hungry sexual behavior and aggression
Hippocampus = Essential the formation of long-term memories
What are part of the Subcortical Structures: CNS ( Part 2 )
Cingulate cortex = Above the corpus callosum
It’s anterior segment participates in decision making and Emotion
It’s posterior segment participates in memories and visual Processing
Amygdala = Located in the temporal lobe And believe to participate in emotional processing (Particularly fear and aggression)
Nucleus accumbens = Participates in reward in addiction ( Active during eating, sex gambling and addictive behaviors
What are the parts of the Cerebrum: CNS?
Corpus callosum = Wide brand of nerve fibers connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral cortex = Thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere
Localized functions in the cerebral cortex
The cerebrum can be divided into four lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Cerebrum: CNS - Part 2
Frontal lobe: the most forward lobe, the location of the primary motor cortex, Free frontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, Broca’s area; Responsible for complex cognitive processes (Decision making higher level cognition and speech)
Parietal lobe: Lies at the top of the head between the frontal and occipital lobes, Location of the primary somatosensory cortex (Processes touch)
Occipital lobe: Located at the back of the brain, location of the primary visual cortex ( processes vision )
Temporal lobe: The lobe that curves on the side of each hemisphere, location of the primary auditory cortex ( processes hearing), Wernicke’s area
What are Mirror Neurons?
Mirror Neurons: early 1990s: Giacomo Rizzolatti and a team of Italian scientists were studying the brain correlates of movement
Certain neurons in the monkey’s brain became active when reaching for a piece of peanut but also when the monkey observed the experimenter pick up a piece of food to place it within his mouth and eat. Scientists believed that the mirror neurons provided a mechanism for understanding the actions and intentions of others
The question is do human beings as well as monkeys possess mirror neurons. Research on humans involves brain imaging so we see the activity of larger areas of the brain (mirror systems) rather than single neurons. It does appear that humans possess mirror systems that help understand the actions, emotions and intentions of others
What are the Right and Left Brain?
Right brain and Left Brain:
A special type of localization of function in the cerebral cortex is known as lateralization, or the localization of a function in either the right or the left cerebral hemisphere
Movement and sensation on the right side of the body are processed by the left hemisphere
Movement and sensation on the left side of the body are processed by the right hemisphere
Hemisphere dominance does not predict occupational choice or artistic talent
What is the Function of Laterization?
The function of lateralization:
Lateralization might provide organisms with the ability to multitask
Human lateralization of brain structures might have made language possible, however, May account for our vulnerabilities For for schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder
Summarize the CNS
CNS summary
Spinal Cord:
Continuous with brain stem
Large white matter pathways
Reflexes
Brainstem and Cerebellum:
Large white Master pathways, arousal, reflexes, and body functions ( heart rate, etc.)
Midbrain
Pons
Cerebellum
Medulla
Reticular formation
Subcortical structures:
Embedded in the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres
Thalamus
Basal Ganglia
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus
Cingulate cortex
Amygdala
Nucleus Accumbens
Cerebral cortex:
Thin layer of gray matter enveloping the hemispheres
Divided into four lobes
Areas with sensory, motor, or association functions
Some localized and lateralized functions
What is the PNS?
Somatic nervous system: a division of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the CNS and transmits commands to the muscles
Autonomic nervous system: a division in the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles. The autonomic nervous system can be further divided into three systems
Sympathetic nervous system: coordinates arousal and the stress response ( activates fight or flight response)
Parasympathetic nervous system: activity is associated with rest, repair, and energy storage ( activates rest and digest response)
Enteric nervous system: a division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the GI tract
What is the Autonomic Nervous System?
Sympathetic nervous system: coordinates arousal and the stress response ( activates fight or flight response)
Parasympathetic nervous system: activity is associated with rest, repair, and energy storage ( activates rest and digest response)
Enteric nervous system: a division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the GI tract
What is the Endocrine System?
Endocrine system:
A system response for the release of hormones (from glands) into the bloodstream
Important glands the pineal gland, the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal gland, Islets of langerhans and the ovaries in females and the testes in males
Response to input from the nervous system and from the hypothalamus in particular
Especially involved with arousal, metabolism, growth and sex
What are the Endocrine System Glands?
Pituitary gland - many of the hormones it releases activate other glands
Pituitary hormones include oxytocin, vasopressin, and human growth hormone
Oxytocin and Vasopressin participate in functions such as breastfeeding and maintenance of fluid levels, respectively
Growth hormone stimulates growth and regeneration
Pituitary hormones control the production and release of sex hormones by the ovaries and the testes, initiating puberty and maintaining fertility
What are the Endocrine System Glands? ( Part 2 )
Endocrine system glands:
Thyroid gland - raises or lower your rate of metabolism, or the chemical processes your body needs to sustain life
Adrenal glands - activated by pituitary glands during times of stress
releases other hormones including cortisol, that travels throughout the body and the brain to provide a general wake up message
Islets of Langerhans - Located in the pancreas, produce hormones essential to digestion, including insulin
Summarize The PNS and Endocrine System
Somatic nervous system:
Sensation and movement
12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Autonomic nervous system:
Sympathetic nervous system: arousal and fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system: rest And repair
Enteric nervous system: control of the gastrointestinal system
Endocrine system:
Metabolism, arousal, growth, sex
Glands
Hormones
Neural Anatomy
Neuron: A cell of the nervous system that specialized for sending and receiving neural messages
Cell body: large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus
Axon: branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting information to other neurons
Dendrite: a branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from the other neurons
Myelin: insulating material covering axons, allowing for rapid conduction
What is the Glia?
Glia:
another type of important cell in the nervous system
provides a structural matrix for neurons
forms tight connections with blood vessels and establishes the blood brain barrier, which prevents toxins from entering the brain
some glia also have the important roles of myelinating neurons
Neural Communication
Neural communication:
Neural communication is a two-step process
The first step occurs in the signaling neurons axon, where an electrical impulse calls an action potential is generated ( electrical signaling). The sign travels down the accent until it reaches the axon terminal
In the second step, the action potential triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters ( chemical signaling) . These act on the receiving neuron to produce an effect
What is Electrical Signaling?
Electrical signaling:
Resting potential: the measure of the electrical charge across a neutral membrane when the neuron is not processing information
Action potential: the electrical signal or rising in a neuron’s axon. Generated when the membrane potential of the neuron reaches a particular threshold value ( at the axon hillock region)
What is Chemical Signaling?
Chemical signaling:
Synapse: a point of communication between two neurons
Neurotransmitter: a chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse
Receptor: a special channel in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons
Reuptake: a process in which molecules of neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap returned to the axon terminal from which they were released
Action potential reaches the axon terminal
Synaptic vesicles ( carrying neurotransmitters) are released from protein anchors, which is triggered by an stream of calcium
Vesicles fuse with the axonal membrane at release sites
Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft
Vesicle material is recycled for future use
Vesicles are refilled with neurotransmitter
Summarize Neural Communication
Neuron:
Cell body: contains the nucleus and carries out most housekeeping functions
Axon: used to send information
Dendrite: used to receive information
Glia
hold neurons in place
clean up debris
form myelin
blood-brain barrier
Action potentials:
propagated down the axon to the terminal
resting potential: no incoming signals
action potential: occurs when cell reaches threshold
refractory period: follows action potential
Synapse
point of communication between two neurons
What are Neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine (ACh): found in a number of systems important to behavior. found at the neurovascular junction, the synapse at which the nervous system commands muscles; interference can result in paralysis or death. It is key in the neurotransmitter of the autonomic nervous system. It is involved in learning and memory; implicated in Alzheimer’s disease
Norepinephrine: Released in the brain and leads to arousal and vigilance. It is released by the sympathetic nervous system and it is Implicated in bipolar disease and post-traumatic stress disorder.
What are Neurotransmitters? (Part 2)
Dopamine: involved with systems that govern movement, planning, reward. It is implicated in Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and ADHD.
Serotonin: involved with systems regulating sleep, appetite, and mood; the three behaviors are tightly linked
Endorphins: modify our natural response to pain
Summarize Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh): Behaviors influenced by neurotransmitters
- movement
- memory
- autonomic nervous system
function
Epinephrine (Adrenalin): arousal
Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin): arousal and vigilance
Dopamine: movement, planning and reward
Serotonin: mood, appetite and sleep
Glutamate: excitation of brain activity
GABA: inhibition of brain activity
Endorphins: pain
