The metagenome Flashcards

1
Q

What is Metagenomics

A

the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental or biological systems/compartments
- gives unbiased view of taxonomic diversity in a sample

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2
Q

What is Microbiota

A

the combination of organisms in the compartment

ecological community of commensal and pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, archae, protists, fungi and viruses

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3
Q

What is Microbiome

A

microbiota + “theatre of activity” (which is the other biological components such as peptides, lipids, toxins etc)
the collective genomes of microorganisms in communities

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4
Q

Taxonomic Diversity

A

The number and relative abundance of species in a community.

Taxonomic diversity varies by body site

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5
Q

What have changes in human microbiome been associated with?

A

multiple human illnesses e.g.:

  • IBS
  • depression
  • cancer
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6
Q

Which microbiome can be used to classify individuals as lean or obese?

A

Gut microbiome (>90% accuracy)

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7
Q

Which infection affects stool microbiome?

A

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)

  • stool microbiome infected with this is quite different from a healthy stool microbiome
  • CDI has greater effect on stool microbiome than host genetic factors
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8
Q

Restoration of healthy stool microbiome after CDI

A

Faecal microbiota transplant

- rapid restoration to healthy state

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9
Q

What are the technological approaches carried out in Metagenomics?

A

1) Targeted PCR Amplification
> relies on 16S ribosomal RNA for bacteria

2) Whole Genome Shotgun Sequencing

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10
Q

16S Targeted PCR Amplification

A

16S ribosomal RNA is a component of the 30S small subunit of prokaryotic ribosome

The gene for a 16SrRNA is split into variable regions and has conserved regions

  • Variable regions are the parts that can be used to determine the different species that are present in a sample - contain the phylogenetic signals
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11
Q

Steps of 16S Targeted PCR Amplification

A

1) Collect bacterial sample
2) Extract DNA from that sample
3) Perform a 16S PCR amplification
4) Put that on a sequencing machine
5) Sequences generated which match to the products we amplified which should match to the actual bacterial content of the original sample

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12
Q

Data Analysis of 16S Targeted PCR Amplification

A

Sequences generated are compared to databases of 16S genes from different bacterial species to identify the species and abundance of species in the sample

This abundance type measurement is converted into a graph, with colours representing different bacterial species

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13
Q

What is used to generate data from 16S Targeted PCR Amplification?

A

Software tools e.g.:

  • QIIME2
  • Mothur
  • DADA2
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14
Q

Problem with sequencing 16S gene

A

It is 1500 bases long and therefore you can’t sequence the whole gene on “short read sequencing machine”.

Therefore, only particular regions are sequenced e.g. V1-V2, V1-V3, V3-V5, V4

However, new long read platform sequencing machines are able to sequence the whole 16S gene (V1-V9)

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15
Q

How do we choose which variable regions to sequence in 16S Targeted PCR Amplification?

A

Choosing variable regions is based on: depends on your experiment

  • phylogenetic signal
  • amplicon length
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16
Q

Controls in 16S Targeted PCR Amplification

A

16S rRNA gene is found in all bacteria which makes it very sensitive to contamination by:

  • operator
  • environment
  • reagents

*especially important for low biomass samples

17
Q

Kitome - how do we avoid contamination?

A

Avoids contamination by:

  • randomise samples to avoid bias
  • note batch numbers of reagents
  • sequence negative controls (e.g. sequencing water could produce bacterial samples)
18
Q

What determines resolution at which you can identify the bacteria?

A

the choice of the variable region

*will not get good resolution below the genus level hence less reliable

19
Q

What determines resolution at which you can identify the bacteria?

A

the choice of the variable region

*will not get good resolution below the genus level hence less reliable

20
Q

What enables full length 16S sequencing?

A

New long read technology enables full length 16S sequencing through:

  • PacBio
  • Nanopore
21
Q

Disadvantage of long read technology

A

higher error rates of long read technology can introduce noise

22
Q

Whole Genome Shotgun Sequencing

A

Same concept as 16S PCR amplification as you take a sample collection with mixture of bacteria and extract DNA.

However, the whole genome is sequenced as opposed to the 16S gene and build an assembly.

23
Q

Data Analysis of Whole Genome Shotgun Sequencing

A

Because the entire genome is sequenced, many sequence reads are generated from the many genes sequenced, and these can be assembled to see how they all join up:

  • phylogenetic tree constructed, taxonomic diversity analysed and relative bacterial abundance measured
  • can carry out gene predictions and identify bacterial metabolic pathways which may be present in the context of conditions and diseases (not possible in 16S)
24
Q

Disadvantage of whole genome shotgun sequencing

A

no amplification step like in 16S PCR amplification, meaning:
- patient host cells are often in excess as no amplification step to enrich for bacterial DNA
= end up sequencing the whole patient DNA

Sample dependent, typical yields of contaminating human reads:
> Faecal: <10% human reads
> Saliva, nasal, skin: >90% human reads

25
Q

How to enrich bacterial sample so that there is less patient DNA without amplification?

A

Through pre-extraction or post-extraction:

PRE-EXTRACTION

  • differential lysis (break down) of mammalian cells
  • enriches for intact microbial cells
  • however, introduces potential bias towards gram-positive bacteria

POST-EXTRACTION

  • enzymatic degradation of methylated nucleotides targets mammalian DNA
  • bias against AT rich bacterial genomes
26
Q

16S PCR amplification vs WGSS

A

Both:
-asses taxonomic diversity in a sample

However, 16S Targeted PCR amplification is biased (only bacteria), whereas WGSS is unbiased (all microorganisms)

27
Q

differences between targeted 16S PCR amplification and whole genome shotgun sequencing

A

16S PCR = access taxonomic diversity in sample BUT is biased bc only works on bacteria

whole gnome = also accesses taxonomic diversity, AND is unbiased, can work on all microorganisms. and it can access composite gene functions in the sample

they both have pretty much same steps