The Liberal State c1911-18

Question 1

Describe the era 1911-18

Answer 1

Italy had been unified for around 50 years, starting in 1861, and unifying Venetia and the Papal States in 1870. However there was major contention over several societal issues, and Italy fought in WW1 on the side of the Entente after signing the Treaty of London in 1915.

Question 2

What major issues faced Italy at the start of the century?

Answer 2

Unification

The political system and the Roman Question

Economic growth and social problems

The north-south divide

Great power status

Question 3

Unification

Answer 3

Italy had been unified in 1861 and then fully in 1870. Over the following 50 years, Italy had struggled to develop a united identity, with most citizens being defined by campanilismo, or being identified with you regional area. 99% of Italians only spoke their regional dialect, introducing a language barrier between states. There were clear tensions at the end of the 1800s with the protests of May 1898 and the assassination of King Umberto I on the 29th July 1900 by anarchists.

Question 4

The political system in Italy

Answer 4

Predominantly made up of northern middle-class professionals who had their own interests at heart. The Roman Question also festered at the heart of Italy’s politics. The Papal States were seized as part of the unification in 1870 to the anger of Pope Pius IX and in 1886, Leo XIII forbade Catholics from running for office and voting, robbing Italy of a potentially unifying symbol as most Italians were Catholic. As well, this meant that there was no Catholic representation in parliament, so there was no opposition to the liberal middle class leaders, and less than 25% of men had the vote. The main way of forming governments was through Trasformismo.

Question 5

Trasformismo

Answer 5

Due to the lack of formal political parties, the main form of government was prominent politicians offering key positions to other members (deputies) and they would support them as PM. This led to flimsy coalitions, where you could easily withdraw support if you had a better deal elsewhere. Therefore political success was not based on merit and popular support, but political manoeuvring.
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Question 6

How many prime ministers were there in 1870-1922?

Answer 6

29, shows the lack of a cohesive government. Instead it was riddled with corruption by Trasformismo.

Question 7

Voting and the franchise in Italy

Answer 7

Most men couldn’t vote, and the liberal elite saw regular Italians as unable to vote as they lacked the political knowledge to do so. Any protest to disenfranchisement was met with violence, and widened the divide between the people and the ruling class. Gave way to more extreme ideologies like Anarchism

Question 8

Economic growth and social issues

Answer 8

Between 1899-1914, there was considerable economic and industrial expansions in the North. Iron, steel, chemical and electrical industries grew. Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Lancia were established. There were however, protests against unemployment, high taxes and food shortages, as the standard of living remained low. These divisions highlighted the major north-south divide, where the south was far more impoverished than the north who experienced economic growth.

Question 9

Strikes in the work force between 1901-1911

Answer 9

There were over 1,500 strikes involving nearly 350,000 workers.

Question 10

The north-south divide

Answer 10

The Questione Meridionale. Little was done to alleviate the poverty in the south of Italy despite questions being asked of why it was so poor.

Question 11

The industrial triangle

Answer 11

Milan, Genoa and Turin, all in the north, compared to the south which was one of Europe’s most impoverished areas

Question 12

Cholera in the south

Answer 12

Between 1910-11, 25,000 people died in Naples due to cholera in poor drinking water.

Question 13

Illiteracy in the south

Answer 13

More than half of the population of the south were illiterate, five times the rate of Piedmont in the north.

Question 14

Emigration from the south

Answer 14

Between 1901-1913, around 200,000 southern Italians a year left in search of a better life, mostly to the USA, including 1 million Sicillians out of 3.5 million. This was the only way of alleviating the economic strains in the south, as investment did not yield any great result.

Question 15

Great Power status

Answer 15

Italy was behind Britain and Germany industrially, and was the ‘least of the great powers’. It struggled geographically as Britain and France ruled the Mediterranean. Irredentism sprung from the late 19th century and aimed for the unification of all Italophone states. Istria and South Tyrol were viewed as rightfully Italian, but were in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, Italy was not strong enough to reclaim these lands. It attempted to claim Tunisia, but France took it for themselves, with support from Britain. Italy therefore signed a defensive alliance with Germany and Austria (The Triple Alliance)

Question 16

Reaction to the Triple Alliance

Answer 16

Many saw this as an agreement with an enemy, Austria, who held land that many felt was rightfully Italian and was a barrier to Irredente.

Question 17

Italy’s attempts at claiming Abyssinia

Answer 17

Overseas expansion was seen as key to being placed among Europe’s great powers. In 1884, Britain agreed to Italian expansion in the area, but it failed at the Battle of Dogali, where 500 soldiers died. Again in 1896, the Italians faced the worst defeat of a European power in Africa at the Battle of Adwa on 1st March 1896. 5000 troops were killed.

Question 18

Illiteracy rates in 1911 in Piedmont and Calabria

Answer 18

Piedmont - 11%

Calabria - 69.6%

Shows a clear disparity between the north and south

Question 19

Who was Giovanni Giolitti?

Answer 19

A liberal politician who was prime minister 5 times between 1892-1921. The era 1901-14 is known as the Giolittian era. He was a master of Trasformismo. He kept files on all of his political opponents in order to ‘absorb’ them. His main aim was to absorb the Catholics, Socialists and Nationalists.

Question 20

Socialists

Answer 20

The PSI (est.1892) led by Fillipo Turati quickly grew into a powerful political institution. It grew as people moved from the south to booming cities like Milan. It was popular with the working class and intellectuals who had lost hope in liberals. The PSI engaged with people more, giving lectures and debates.

Question 21

How did Giolitti attempt to absorb the socialists?

Answer 21

1898 - compulsory accident insurance and non compulsory national insurance fund for the elderly

1901 - no children under 12 allowed to work

1902 - women’s work day = 11 hours

1906 - arbitration courts to limit strikes but fight for good pay

Question 22

Catholics

Answer 22

After 1911, the Catholics were growing in popularity. They expanded into sport and youth movements between 1904-11. However there was a Catholic concern of the rise of socialism. in 1909, the Pope encouraged voting in around 150 areas where socialism had a chance of succeeding. But, Giolitti prioritised his relationship with the socialists and didn’t offer any concession to the Catholics that may jeopardise that. Therefore he could not answer the Roman Question.

Question 23

Concessions to the Catholics

Answer 23

1904 - Divorce Bill

Question 24

Nationalists

Answer 24

The ANI (est.1910) was built on a growing nationalist ideology. The loss at Adwa, the failure to bring Risorgimento, the emigration from the south and the lack of great power status boosted the movement. It was anti-socialist and anti-liberal and believed in aggressive foreign policy. They saw the liberal party and Giolitti as weak and corrupt and needed to be overthrown.

Question 25

How did Giolitti appease the nationalists?

Answer 25

Giolitti decided to expand in to Libya in 1911

Question 26

Italian secret treaty with France

Answer 26

In 1902, Italy signed an agreement with France saying that Italy would support France expansion into Morocco and France would back Italian expansion into Libya. By 1911, France had began to consolidate their power in Morocco, and Italy feared it would break the agreement and try for Libya too. This was one reason for the war in Libya. They could not have a repeat of Tunisia.

Question 27

Reasons for the invasion of Libya

Answer 27

- An attempt to appease the nationalists who wanted an aggressive foreign policy - They did not want to miss a chance to expand as they did with Tunisia - The Catholic Church also had financial interests in Libya and encouraged the government to pursue expansion. Therefore the war would be a way to appease both parties.

Question 28

When did the invasion of Libya begin?

Answer 28

29th September, 1911

Question 29

When did the Ottomans surrender?

Answer 29

8th October, 1912

Question 30

Successes of the invasion

Answer 30

It was greeted with enthusiasm at home. The Navy had seized most of Libya's ports and coastal towns within 3 weeks. However, the Italians hoped that the Libyans would see them as liberators but this did not happen, so they put pressure on the Ottomans by seizing 13 Ottoman-controlled islands. The Ottomans could not continue the war and surrendered. It was greeted as a resounding Italian victory and overcame the shame of Adwa.

Question 31

How many men were committed and lost in Libya?

Answer 31

70,000 committed, 3,500 deaths, still a high death toll. 50,000 troops were kept back to pacify the Libyans

Question 32

What was the impact of the invasion of Libya?

Answer 32

The war **DID NOT** help Giolitti absorb the nationalists. It increased support for the nationalists and they took credit for the success. They blamed the Liberals for the amount of men that were lost in the fight. It destroyed Giolitti's cooperation with the socialists, as they denounced the war as imperialist militarism.

Question 33

The franchise extension

Answer 33

The vote in Italy had been restricted to literate men over 21, but as a result of the war in Libya, it was difficult to deny soldiers the vote, and many of them were illiterate. in 1912, the vote was extended to all men aged 30 and over regardless of literacy. In an attempt to promote national unity, he ignored the fact that 70% of the electorate were potentially illiterate.

Question 34

What was the impact of the franchise extension?

Answer 34

The first election under this new law in 1913 resulted in the liberals winning 318 seats, a loss of 71 seats from the 1909 election. Opposition parties made gains. Critically, the Gentiloni Pact of 1913 had given the liberals about 228 deputies of their total 318 in return for agreement on seven key points for the church. This agreement had angered socialists and anticlericals and they withdrew support, leading to Giolitti's resignation

Question 35

When did Giolitti resign?

Answer 35

21st March 1914

Question 36

Who replaced Giolitti?

Answer 36

Antonio Salandra

Question 37

Red Week

Answer 37

In June 1914, the PSI proclaimed a national strike in response to the shooting of 3 protestors by police in Ancona. The strike included socialists, anarchists and republicans and most of north/central Italy was in chaos, with tax registers destroyed, railway stations seized and churches attacked. Italy was on the verge of revolution. This demonstrates the growth of the extremist socialists and nationalists and was incredibly divided.

Question 38

Declaration of neutrality

Answer 38

When WW1 broke out in August 1914, Italy, who was part of the Triple Alliance since 1882, did not have to support Italy as they did not consult them before invading Serbia. Therefore they announced they would stay neutral. Obviously this angered many nationalists, but many in parliament including Giolitti found that Italy was not economically ready to fight another war so soon after Libya. Most Italians did not want to get sucked into European war.

Question 39

Summary of the instability of 1912-24

Answer 39

- The invasion of Libya was a failure, and was instrumental in the collapse of the Giolitti regime. It led to the growth of nationalist and the socialists had strongly denounced the war. - The extension of the franchise had resulted in an electorate where potentially 70% were illiterate. - Both of these factors resulted in the resignation of Giolitti - His successor, Antonio Salandra, had to deal with the growth of nationalism and socialism evident through the strikes of Red Week - He also had to navigate the decision of neutrality, which split the government and angered nationalists, while most of Italy supported non-intervention

Question 40

The intervention crisis

Answer 40

On the one hand, Salandra argued that if Germany and Austria won the war, they would not be sympathetic to Italy who failed to support them. On the other hand, if they did not assist the Entente powers, they would not discuss Italian ambitions in the Mediterranean. Salandra believed that an Italian victory in the war would open doors for more authoritarian solutions to the country's problems.

Question 41

Who did Italy ended up fighting with in WW1?

Answer 41

Salandra and his foreign minister Sidney Sonnino found that the Entente powers had offered the best deal, promising that with victory, Italy would gain much of the irredente lands, like South Tyrol, Trieste, Istria, and Istria.

Question 42

When was the Treaty of London signed?

Answer 42

26th April 1915

Question 43

What were the consequences of the Treaty of London?

Answer 43

Giolitti and 300 deputies denounced the decision to intervene in the war, and it was highly controversial as it was done in secret. Salandra resigned but was reinstated, as the King asked Giolitti to form a new government, but he did not want to support the treaty, whereas the King felt committed to it. So the King reinstated Salandra and granted him emergency powers.

Question 44

The War, 1915-16

Answer 44

The war was mostly fought on challenging Alpine terrain, and resulted in thousands of deaths by cholera and frostbite. 62,000 were killed in four attempted offensives against the Austrians in 1915. It had accentuated social divisions, as many of the 5 million conscripts were from southern peasantry. Many of them spoke their regional language, and could not understand their northern educated commanders.

Question 45

Attempts to control desertion in the war

Answer 45

Around 290,000 soldiers were courtmartialed for desertion as many did not understand what they were fighting for, and did not care. Luigi Cadorna repressed dissent with harsh punishment. 4,000 death sentences were passed, and they refrained from attempting to rescue captured soldiers, as if the conditions of the camps were perceived as better than war, they'd be inclined to surrender. Those who survived the camps had a strong feeling of abandonment.

Question 46

How many soldiers were captured?

Answer 46

600,000

Question 47

How many soldiers died from hunger-related illnesses?

Answer 47

100,000

Question 48

Battle of Caporetto

Answer 48

The Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo occurred on 24 October 1917. A humiliating retreat took place, with reports of looting, violence between Italian troops and celebrations as some thought the war was over. It revealed the poor state of the army and marked a turning point in the war: they were now fighting for survival.

Question 49

Effect of the Battle of Caporetto

Answer 49

11,000 dead 29,000 wounded 300,000 prisoners 300,000 scattered men - **It reignited the divisions of intervention that had taken place in 1914-15.** Some nationalists believed that the fact that most of parliament still backed Giolitti and non-interventionists, and this was to blame to Italy's poor military performance. Some called for them to be put on trial for treason - **Paulo Boselli resigned** and was replaced by younger, more dynamic **Vittorio Orlando**, and the strict, overly offensive **Luigi Cadorna was replaced by General Diaz.** - **The Opera Nazionale Combattenti was established** in the direct aftermath to look after soldiers - Promises of land reform were made to boost morale, plus, rations and annual leave were raised

Question 50

How did socialists react to the war?

Answer 50

The PSI continually opposed the war, they did not vote for war credits and declared a policy of 'neither support nor sabotage'. Nationalists despised this position, as it was unpatriotic and anti-Italian. This 'stab in the back/defeatist' position was blamed for poor performance and many PSI leaders were imprisoned. The war had resulted in even greater polarisation on the political spectrum.

Question 51

Positive economic effects of war

Answer 51

Before the war, Italy was behind Austria in almost all areas of the economy. For every 2 machine guns per Italian Battalion, Austria had 12. The under-secretariat for arms and munitions, **Alfred Dallolio** led Italy to economic success in the war. He allowed women, peasants and men who were deemed essential to war production (and were therefore exempt from war) to work in factories. Due to this, **Italy had produced around 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of of heavy artillery. This exceeded Britains output.** He raised work hours, and strikes were illegal *Fiat* established itself as Europe's leading trick and lorry manufacturer, producing 25,000 vehicles in 1918. Italy had also developed its own aeronautical industry, producing 6,500 planes in 1918. Fiat had increased its workforce from 6,000 to 30,000 during the war.

Question 52

How did Dallolio finance industrial expansion?

Answer 52

They made payments in advance, arranged cheap loans and established profitable contacts for big businesses. While the government hardly interfered in expansion, as industrialists ran the central and regional committees for industrial mobilisation, they had almost entirely financed growth with government investment, foreign loans and printing more money. This would inevitably lead to mass inflation at the end of the war

Question 53

War debt as a consequence of war

Answer 53

From 2.9 billion lire of debt before the war, they were now 23 billion lire in debt after. In June 1919, National debt reached 84.9 billion They owed Britain 15 billion, and the US 8.5 billion

Question 54

Negatives economic effects of the war

Answer 54

- Italy was now in debt after financing industrial expansion with loans, and they were bound to face an inflation crisis. - War production also highlighted the North-South Divide, as most of the industrial growth was occurring in the North and the South remained impoverished. The north grew by over 20% between 1911-21. - The economy was unbalanced with some sectors like steel, vehicles and chemicals growing disproportionately to other sectors. - It also accentuated social problems. Real wages fell by around 25% while industrialists were making profits, which fuelled anger especially as most opposed the war (they didn't care much about Irredentism). In August 1917, 50 workers were killed in a protest against bread shortages and the war.

Question 55

Battle of Vittorio Veneto

Answer 55

By the end of the war, Austria was near collapse. This was a perfect time to strike, as a successful offensive may give them a strong seat at the negotiation table. On the 24th October 1918, exactly a year after Caporetto, Italian forces crossed the Piave River and split the Austrian arm in two. Austria signed the armistice on November 4th, and the battle became a symbol of unity and glory of patriotism. It is somewhat bittersweet, as Italy had lost 650,000 men in the war, Italy was more socially divided on the intervention crisis, the North-South crisis and between those who fought and those who were exempt.