The Issue Of Civil Rights

Question 1

By 1945 how many black American people were in the US army

Answer 1

three quarters of a million

Question 2

How did the war highlight racism and discrimination in the USA and armed forces

Answer 2

-Black soldiers stationed in Britain were treated far better than back home. In the army there were solely black soldiers with white officers
- many black women served in the armed forces as nurses but were only allowed to treat black soldiers
- the us army would not accept black pilots. In each armed service, Black Americans people performed the menial tasks and found promotion difficult
- discrimination was worse in the navy with black soldiers given most dangerous job of loading ammunition onto ships. In 1944 an accident killed 323 people mostly black
- the tuskagee airmen won great acclaim as fighter escorts for US bombers
- the 761sr tank battalion also won acclaim in the battle of the bulge and received praise from general Patton. Its nickname was the black panthers.

Question 3

Progress in civil rights following ww2

Answer 3

The US supreme commander, general Eisenhower supported integrated combat units; by 1944 black soldiers were fighting in these units and there were hundreds of black officers in the army and marines + fighter squadrons of black pilots although they were not allowed to fly in the same groups as white pilots

Desegregation in the navy came in 1946 and other services in 1948, by 1955 the army had changed from being one of the most segregated organisations to the most successfully integrated

Question 4

How baby black pilots by the end of 1945

Answer 4

600

Question 5

How many black sailors had risen to rank of officer

Answer 5

58 3.5 million

Question 6

The double V campaign

Answer 6

The newspaper, the Pittsburgh Corrier created the double V campaign after readers began to comment on second-class status of black workers during wartime. Double V meant victory at home in terms of improved civil rights as well as victory abroad against fascism on the battlefield.

Question 7

Philip Randolph 1941

Answer 7

Sought to remove discrimination in the armed forces and workplace; organised a ‘March on Washington”. President Roosevelt issued Executive order 8802 which stopped discrimination in industrial and government jobs and also set up the Fair Employment Practices Comission (FEPC). It could not force companies to employ black people but it could use the threat of withdrawing government contracts to encourage them to do so.

Question 8

How much did the number of black people employed in government service increase over the war

And involved in industry

Answer 8

50,000-200,000

2 million

However black workers generally only earned half of what white workers earned

Question 9

Causes of race riots

Answer 9

Migration of many black Americans people to the industrial cities of the north created greater racial tension

Question 10

In how many cities did race riots occur

Answer 10

47

Question 11

Damage caused by Detroit riot June 1943

Answer 11

25 black people and 9 white people died

More than 700 injured

US$2million of property damage

In same year 9 black American people killed in riots in Harlem and there were riots in 9 black army training camps.

Question 12

Why and by how much did nmembership increase for the national association for the advancement of coloured people grow during the war

Answer 12

Awareness of discrimination and it’s injustice

From 50,000 to 450,000

Question 13

CORE

Answer 13

Congress of racial equality. Founded by James FArmer in 1942. Inspired by non-violent tactics of Mahatma Gandhi. It used the idea of sit-ins at cinemas and restaurants; this did lead to end of segregation in some northern cities.

Question 14

Truman’s comittee on Civil rights

Answer 14

Recommended laws to prevent lynching, a permanent comission on civil rights and prevention of segregation in housing, nothing was done as republicans and Dixiecrats continued to block reforms. Most important reform came when the armed forces desegregated in 1948. Nevertheless, because of their contribution to the war black American people were now better placed to demand their full rights as American citizens. Truman made countless speeches and though no new laws were introduced, he did raise the nation’s awareness of the problem of civil rights.

Question 15

What did Supreme Court rule in Plessy Vs Ferguson Case of 1896

Answer 15

That if separate conditions were equal than segregation was constitutional

Question 16

How much more did South Carolina spend on white schools than black schools

Answer 16

3x

Question 17

Describe brown Vs Topeka case

Answer 17

In Topeka, a town in strata of Kansas, Linda browns parents wanted her to attend a neighbourhood school rather than one for black American people some distance away. Lawyers from NAACP, led by thurgood Marshall presented evidence to the Supreme Court that separate education created low self esteem and was physiologically harmful moreover evidence suggested that this restricted educational achievement was restricted. In 1954 it was ruled segregation was unconstitutional

Question 18

Problems after Brown Vs Topeka

Answer 18

Judgement did not specify how integration should be carried out apart from a vague notion of ‘at the earliest possible speed” some areas began to desegregate but still 2.4 million black children were educated in Jim Crow schools. Over next 2 years southern state legislatures passed more than 450 laws and resolutions aimed to prevent the Brown decision being enforced

Question 19

Events at little rock high school

Answer 19

Little Rock high school in Arkansas decided to allow 9 black students to enrol. But as they tried to enter the school they were prevented by state governor who ordered national guardsmen to block their entry claiming there would be public disorder if they were allowed to enrol. The following day, the national guard was removed by the Governor and the children faced a viscous white crowd; the children were sent home under police guard as it was unsafe. Press and television coverage in USA and across world brought humiliation to country which put itself forward as the champion of freedom and equality. President Eisenhower sent 101st Airborne Division of 1,000+ federal troops to Little Rock to protect the students for the rest of the year. And each of the 9 was given a personal guard. The Governor then closed down all schools for a year simply to prevent integration. But schools reopened following Supreme Court ruling that schools must integrate.

Question 20

The James Meredith Case

Answer 20

The Supreme Court upheld a federal court decision to force Mississippi University to accept black student James Meredith; president Kennedy sent in 320 federal marshals to escort Meredith to classes. There were riots. 2 people killed, 166 marshals and 210 demonstrators wounded. President Kennedy sent more than 2,000 troops to restore order, 300 soldiers had to remain until Meredith received his degree 3 years later.

Question 21

Montgomery Bus boycott

Answer 21

After the arrest of Rosa Parks in December 1955.
Initially the Montgomery Women’s political council, led by Jo Ann Robinson decided to hold a one-day boycott of the buses on day of Parks trial and handed out thousand of leaflets encouraging people to boycott buses. Local civil rights activists became involved and held a meeting to plan a rally for the evening of the trial and the NAACP began to prepare it’s legal challenge to the segregation laws, At the meeting the Montgomery Improvement association was established to oversee the continuation and maintenance of the boycott and also improve race relations. King was chosen to lead as he was new to Montgomery and the authorities knew little of him. 20,000 people estimated to be involved in rally and 7,000 attended King’s speech which also emphasised that they would not use violence only law and order to achieve goal of desegregation on buses. The Boycott continued until their demand were met

Question 22

What happened during the bus boycott

Answer 22

Montgomery citizens walked to work causing bus companies to lose money. Black taxi companies helped those boycotting in the first few days and then churches bought cars to take people to and from work. This created problems as people were harassed by police at pick up point who used local laws to avoid crowds gathering + many drivers were arrested on minor traffic violations.

The montgomery white citizens council organised opposition. In some cases violence was used and King and other leaders had their homes firebombed during 1956

90 of leading figures were also arrested for leading an illegal boycott. King was sentenced 386 days in jail but instead paid a fine of US$1,000 in 1957

Us national press helped raise awareness of deep racial hatred

The federal court accepted segregation was unconstitutional but Montgomery officials appealed and case went to Supreme Court who upheld the federal court’s decision

Question 23

Importance of Montgomery boycott

Answer 23

• NAACP was vindicated in making legal case and using Brown case as a precedent
  -highlighted + of peaceful approach
• encouraged king to take further action
• gave movement a clear moral framework

Question 24

Sit ins

Answer 24

In feb 1960 300 students remained seated at a ‘whites only’ lunch counter and refused to move until they were served. When they were arrested for trespass the students then boycotted shops in Greensbro that had segregated counters. Sales immediately dropped and segregation ended. The students endured violence and assault but did not retaliate.

Sit ins became a tool of protest. The pressure on the local economy was successful. By august 1961 70,000 participants and resulted in over 3,000 arrests

Question 25

The freedom riders

Answer 25

In December 1960 the supreme court decided all bus stations and terminals that served interstate travellers should be integrated. CORE wanted to test that decision by employing the tactic of the freedom rides. Black people volounteered go ride buses and uses white facilities to check integration was happening. In Alabama a bus was attacked and burnt and in Montgomery white racists beat up several of the freedom riders. In Jackson Mississippi 27 freedom riders were jailed for 67 days for sitting in whites only section of the bus station. When freedom riders reached Birmingham Alabama there was no protection for them, the police chief had given most of police the day off, and they were attacked by a mob forcing Kennedy to intervene. Kennedy secured a promise with state senator that the riders would not be attacked when they arrived in Jackson. However they were arrested trying to use a white waiting room. They continued to face imprisonment and violence from KKK. Eventually the interstate commerce comission issued a regulation that ended racial segregation in bus terminals.

Question 26

Role of Martin Luther King (Birmingham March)

Answer 26

• energetic and enthusiastic/ able to inspire
• used non-violent tactics
• in 1963 there was still no federal law that made southern states integrate public facilities. In order to avoid desegregation authorities closed them all instead.
• king arrested for defying a ban on marches. During his short stay in prison he wrote his ‘letter from Birmingham jail’which explained how black people were tired at their humiliating treatment in their own country and how new independent countries in Africa and Asia had more rights than they did in the USA. He wrote that he understood people were impatient for change and the fears faced by all Black American people + highlighted the enormous poverty they suffered amongst a country of incredible wealth
• situation worsen when King was released from jail and it was decided to use children and students to test the police reaction- Bull Connor allowed his men to set dogs and powerful hoses on the protestors and arrested 2,000 demonstrators + 1,300 children
• this gave the movement global publicity to show the violence of authorities in face of peaceful protestors
• president Kennedy sent assistant attorney General to mediate the parties and agreed to desegregate the city in 90days

Question 27

Martin Luther King and March on Washington

Answer 27

The NAACP, CORE, SNCC and SCLC all organised March
The Washington police put a hold on leave for its 3,000 officers in case violence broke out
President Kennedy fearing violence asked for the March to be called off
It demanded passage of Kennedy’s Civil rights Bill
250,000 demonstrators showed up
The March was a success and televised across the USA, brought together different sections of society and put further pressure on President Kennedy to move forward Civil rights
After March Kennedy and King met to discuss civil rights legislation. Kennedy was keen to pass a civil rights bill but aware of republican politicians still opposed to change

4 black girls were killed in a bomb attack while attending Sunday school in Birmingham; movement seemed to stall in late 1963 and then hit by assassination of Kennedy.

New President Lyndon Johnson pushed civil rights bill through congresss and it became a law in 1964 but it did not guarantee black people the vote.

King decided to hold March on Selma to Birmingham demanding voting rights. Marchers were attacked by police and state troopers in what was known as ‘Bloody Sunday”

the act was passed in August

Question 28

Work of Malcom X

Answer 28

• some believed Civil rights movement moved too slowly and Kings method would never bring about equality
  -the national of Islam supporters openly sought separatism. Members rejected their slave surnames and called themselves X
• Malcom X increased membership to about 100,000 between 1952 and 1964
• he helped set up educational and social programmes for black youths in ghettos
• by 1960 more than 75% of members were aged between 17 and 35
• he is credited with reconnecting black American people with their African heritage and is responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in USA
• many believed that the national had a hate white doctrine which was as dangerous as any white racist group
• he called the March on Washington a farce
• had a large influence on young urban black people; felt violence could be justified not only for self defence but for securing a separate black nation. However after a visit to Mecca he changed his views and left the Black Muslims to set up the Muslim Mosque , Inc. and the organisation of Afro-American unity to promote closer ties between Africans and African- American people
• he said in Mecca he was able to see Muslims of different races interacting as equals
• he pushed to end racial discrimination in the USA
• his ideas became the foundation of more radical civil rights movements such as Black Power and the Black Panthers
• historians say that Malcom X helped raise the self-esteem of black Americans people more than any other individual in the Civil rights Movement

Question 29

How did Lyndon Johnson pass civil rights Act 1964

Answer 29

• ensured the southern democrats who opposed bill would be counterbalanced by republicans
• put forward a vision of ‘a great society ‘ which would attack racial injustice and poverty
• deep shock following Kennedy’s Assassination so some in Congress voted sympathetically
• ## Johnson was able to win some support in Congress because he was a southerner from Texas

Question 30

Civil rights act 1964

Answer 30

Segregation in hotels, motels, restaurants, lunch counters and theatres was banned.
The Act placed the responsibility on the federal government to bring cases to court where discrimination still occurred. •Any business engaged in transactions with the government was monitored to ensure there was no discrimination. •Black students were given equal rights to enter all public places and bodies which received government money, including schools.

Question 31

Selma and voting rights

Answer 31

In 1870, by the 15th amendment, male black Americans people were given the right to vote. However some states disenfranchised them by means such as unfair taxation and impossible literacy tests.

In 1962 the government set up the Voter Education Project which was staffed mainly by members of the SNCC and they spent much time with eligible voters explaining to them how to overcome the barriers. 650,000 new voter registrations but many still refused to vote.

The SNCC workers were subject to harassment; in Georgia several churches were bombed,workers wear beaten up and some shot. Those who did vote were sometimes evicted from their land, sacked from the job and refused credit.

In 1965, Martin Luther King forced the issue with a non Violent campaign in Selma where only 383 black Americans voters were able to register out of a possible 15000. For 2 months attempts were made to register Black voters; king and his followers were subject to beatings and arrests. One demonstrator was killed. A March was held from Selma to the state capital Birmingham to present Governor with a petition asking for voting rights.

It took place on 7th March but stopped when attacked by Sheriff Clarke’s me and state troops. Tear gas was used and mounted police and clubs. On 21st March it was repeated and Johnson had agreed to put forward a Bill to enfranchise black American people. 25,000 people went on March

Question 32

Civil right reform of 1967

Answer 32

Supreme Court declared laws forbidding interracial marriages were unconstitutional

Question 33

Civil rights reform of 1968

Answer 33

Fair housing Act (president Johnson) die rumination based on race colour gender national origin or religion outlawed

Question 34

Race riots in 1960s

Answer 34

Young black Americans and those living in ghettos were frustrated with high rates of unemployment, continuing discrimination and poverty. On 11 august 1965 frustration exploded in a major riot in Watt district of LA. 34 dead 4,000 arrested and US$40million of damage. Riots across USA followed in next 2 summers and caused President Johnson and advisers to look into factors behind them. The Kerner report (1968) stated that racism was deeply embedded in American Society, not only highlighted by the economic issues faced by Black American people but also the systemic police bias and brutality.

Question 35

Arguments that Martin Luther King was not entirely successful

Answer 35

Riots from 1965- 67 and those that erupted when he died indicate there was still huge frustration among the black population.

Question 36

Black Power Movement

Answer 36

Originally a political slogan but came to cover a wide range of activities in late1960s which aimed to increase power of black people in American life. Stokely Carmichael and others at SNCC wanted black people to take responsibility for their own lives and reject white help. for some black activists black power meant separation but for others it meant ridding USA of a corrupt power structure. Carmichael and associates wanted black people to have their own political force so they would not have to rely on the black groupings that existed at the time. They wanted black people to take pride in their heritage and adopted slogan ‘black is beautiful’

Carmichael was criticised for his aggressive attitude

Question 37

The Mexico olympics 1968

Answer 37

Black power movement gained publicity

At winners ceremony for Men’s 200m and 400m relay the athletes wore part of the movements uniform- a single black glove and black beret and also gave the clenched fist salute. They were both accused of bringing politics into sport and damaging Olympic spirit.

Question 38

Black Panther Movement

Answer 38

Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in October 1966 in Oakland, California. Both men were heavily influenced by Malcom X. They had a 10 point programme and were prepared to use revolutionary means to achieve these aims. Even form alliances with radical white groups. The leaders of the Panthers advocated for an end in capitalism and establishment of a socialist society.

They wore uniforms and were prepared to use weapons, training members in their use. By the end of 1968 they had 5,000 members however, internal divisions and the events of 1969 which saw 27 panthers killed and 700 injured saw support diminish

Question 39

Black panther 10point programme

Answer 39

Freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black Community. 2 We want full employment for our people. 3We want an end to the robbery by the white man of our Black Community. 4 We want decent housing, fit for shelter of human beings. 5We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present-day society. 6We want all black men to be exempt from military service. 7We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of black people.

Waugh, Steve; Wright, John. WJEC Eduqas GCSE History: The Development of the USA, 1929-2000 (p. 47). Hodder Education. Kindle Edition.

Question 40

Achievements of Black Panther Movement

Answer 40

Although targeted by FBI they established Free Breakfast for Children Programme in parts of California and Chicago . Also provided clothing distribution centres, gave guidance on drug rehabilitation and assistance to those with relatives in prison.