The Influence of Early Attachment

Question 1

1) Internal Working Model

Answer 1

• The notion of an internal working model was proposed by Bowlby.
• According to Bowlby, infants develop a schema based on their attachment to their primary caregiver. This early attachment is referred to as ‘monotropy’.
• This schema acts as a template for how relationships work and patterns of behaviour about how individuals relate to one another in partnerships, such as if people can be trusted or if relationships are loving.
• The internal working model of an infant is thought to predict the likely outcomes of behaviour in childhood and adulthood.
• For example, an infant who has experienced sensitive responsiveness from their caregiver will likely form a secure attachment type and come to expect functional, reliable and loving future relationships.
• Conversely, an infant who has poor early attachment experiences are more likely to behave appropriately in future relationships or struggle to form any at all.

Question 2

2) Relationships in childhood

Answer 2

• Kerns found that securely attached infants are more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood whilst infants with an insecure attachment are likely to have difficulties forming or maintaining friendships.
• Sroufe et al. conducted a Minnesota child-parent study and found that infants who were rated high in social competence during childhood were more empathetic, popular and felt less isolated. These results can be easily understood by considering the role of the internal working model since infants who are securely attached will have positive expectations that others whom they relate to will be trustworthy and friendly in return, which provides the ideal platform for interacting with others during childhood.
• Insecure avoidant types are more likely to be bullied due to their tendency to struggle to make friends and be socially withdrawn. Insecure resistant types are more likely to be the bullies due to their insecurity and fear of rejection.

Question 3

3) Relationships in Adulthood: Romantic
Key study: Hazan and Shaver (1987) - Aim

Answer 3

A questionnaire, termed the ‘Love Quiz’ was designed to test the internal working model to assess if attachment type formed as an infant influences friendships and adult relationships.

Question 4

3) Relationships in Adulthood: Romantic
Key study: Hazan and Shaver (1987) - Method

Answer 4

• The ‘Love Quiz’, comprising 3 sections, was published in a local American newspaper.
• It received 620 volunteers (205 males and 415 females).
• The 1st section was designed to assess the individuals’ most important relationship.
• The 2nd section was focused on ascertaining general experiences in love.
• The 3rd section asked self-selecting participants about their feelings in relation to some statements.

Question 5

3) Relationships in Adulthood: Romantic
Key study: Hazan and Shaver (1987) - Findings

Answer 5

• It was found that 56% of respondents were classified as securely attached, 25% with an insecure-avoidant attachment type and 19% with an insecure-resistant attachment type.
• A positive correlation was found between early attachment type and experiences in love with those reporting secure attachments in childhood being the most likely to have loving and lasting romantic relationships.
• Respondents whose answers indicated an insecure-avoidant attachment type from infancy were more likely to report feelings of dislike in relation to intimacy.
• Individuals with a insecure-resistant attachment type were more likely to have shorter relationships, approximately 6 years, compared to secure respondents who averaged relationship durations of 10 years or more.

Question 6

3) Relationships in Adulthood: Romantic
Key study: Hazan and Shaver (1987) - Conclusion

Answer 6

The findings analysed from the ‘Love Quiz’ indicate that specific attachment type behaviours are reflected in adult romantic relationships because of an internal working model formed in infancy to guide expectations.

Question 7

4) Relationships in Adulthood: Parenting

Answer 7

• The internal working model not only influences adult romantic relationships but also the parenting style of an individual who goes on to have children of their own.
• As a result of parenting styles being based on personal experiences and expectations of the internal working model, attachment type tends to be passed down through the generations of a family.
• Bailey et al. looked at the attachment type of around 100 mothers and their infants (assessed in the Strange Situation) with the relationships they had with their own mothers, which was established in an interview.
• It was found that a vast proportion of the women had the same attachment type to their infants as to their own mothers, supporting the concept of the internal working model influencing parenting style.
• Likewise, findings from Harlow’s study using baby rhesus monkeys also mirror this pattern. Monkeys with poor or no attachments were see to experience difficulties with parenting because of their early, formative experiences.

Question 8

Strength

Answer 8

Point: A strength of attachment research is that it has valuable real-world applications, particularly in improving children’s social and emotional development.

Evidence: Understanding the influence of early attachment and the internal working model has allowed schools and educators to implement interventions aimed at supporting children who experience loneliness, social withdrawal, or bullying. By helping children form more secure attachments and positive relationship expectations early on, schools can aid in reshaping maladaptive internal working models.

Justification: This has long-term benefits not only for the individual but also for society as a whole. Children who develop healthier relationship patterns are more likely to experience stable adult relationships, reducing the likelihood of divorce, emotional distress, and mental health difficulties later in life. This, in turn, could decrease the financial burden on public services associated with relationship breakdowns, therapy, and mental health support.

Implication: Therefore, attachment research has a strong practical utility by extending beyond theoretical knowledge and contributing to policies and practices that promote emotional wellbeing and social stability—underscoring its lasting value in both educational and societal contexts.

Counterargument: However, whilst these practical applications are promising, their effectiveness may be limited in real-world settings.

Evidence: Implementing strategies that alter children’s internal working models requires consistent intervention by highly trained professionals, which may not always be available in all educational or therapeutic settings. Additionally, the success of these interventions can vary greatly depending on the child’s environment, age, and the severity of their attachment issues.

Justification: This suggests that although early attachment theory offers useful insights, the ability to apply these findings to real-life may be constrained by practical limitations such as funding, training, and individual variability. It may also overestimate how easily internal working models can be reshaped later in life, for instance, if an infant had experienced severe early trauma.

Implication: Therefore, while the research does provide meaningful guidance for improving social outcomes, the complexity of human development means its practical impact might not be as probable or widespread as hoped, reducing its real-world applicability.

Question 9

Weakness

Answer 9

Point: A key limitation of research into the influence of early attachment on later relationships is that much of it is correlational, meaning it cannot establish cause and effect.

Evidence: For example, Hazan and Shaver’s ‘Love Quiz’ found a link between childhood attachment types and adult romantic relationship patterns. However, like many studies in this area, it relied on retrospective self-reports and only showed an association - not a causal relationship. Furthermore, Fraley et al. conducted a meta-analysis and found that the correlation coefficients between early attachment and later relationships raged widely from as low as +0.10 to +0.50, showing inconsistencies in the strength of these associations.

Justification: These findings suggest that while there may be a relationship between early attachment experiences and later social outcomes, the influence of the internal working model may not be as strong or as direct as originally proposed by Bowlby. Other environmental or individual differences, such as temperament or life events, could also be playing a major role in shaping relationship patterns.

Implication: This weakens the explanatory power of attachment theory when applied to later relationships. Since correlational research does not confirm causation, conclusions drawn from such studies must be interpreted with caution.

Question 10

Weakness

Answer 10

Point: A limitation of research into the influence of attachment on later relationships is that it can be overly deterministic in its conclusions.

Evidence: For instance, the internal working model proposed by Bowlby suggests that an insecure attachment in infancy will inevitably lead to poor-quality relationships in adulthood. This implies that early negative experiences with a caregiver will set a fixed path for future relational outcomes, leaving little room for change or recovery.

Justification: However, this perspective ignores the plasticity of human development. Later positive experiences, such as forming a secure attachment with a partner or receiving therapy, can help individuals overcome early adversities. Research has found examples of people who, despite insecure attachments as children, go on to develop stable and fulfilling adult relationships, highlighting that development is not set in stone and that the internal working model may not be as rigid or influential as originally suggested.

Implication: As a result, this weakens the predictive power of the internal working model, as it overlooks the potential for personal growth and environmental change. It also challenges the usefulness of applying such a fixed framework to understanding complex human behaviours like love and attachment across the lifespan, as it disregards the adaptability and dynamic nature of human development - making this theory less reliable for explaining or predicting future relational outcomes.