The influence of culture on gender roles

Question 1

What is meant by ‘culture’?

Answer 1

The rules, customs, morals, childrearing practices etc. that bind a group together.

Question 2

Relevance of cross-cultural research

Answer 2

The study of cultural influences on gender roles helps us to increase our understanding of the relative contributions of biology and socialisation (i.e. nature vs. nurture).

If biology is the main factor in determining gender roles then we would expect to find similarities regardless of culture (universal behaviours).

However, if socialisation is the main factor then we should observe different roles taken on by men and women according to culture.

Question 3

Individualist cultures

Answer 3

Importance is placed on the individual and achieving personal goals. Independence is valued.

Question 4

Collectivist cultures

Answer 4

Importance is placed on the group, which strive to achieve shared goals and aspire to be dependent on each other.

Question 5

Traditional cultures

Answer 5

a culture where there are clear differences in men’s and women’s roles and power.

Question 6

Egalitarian cultures

Answer 6

a culture where gender roles are more flexible and equal.

Question 7

Effect of culture on spatial perception skills

Answer 7

Males living in tight sedentary societies have been found to have superior spatial-perceptual skills compared to those living in nomadic societies.
There is a greater division of labour in sedentary societies (women stay at home and look after the children) and men are given practice from early childhood in skills related to hunting.
This supports the idea that culture can have an effect on gender differences.

Question 8

However…
Although gender roles appear similar in most cultures, they are not similar in all cultures:

Answer 8

Sugihara and Katsurada (2002) found that Japanese men do not seek to be ‘macho’ like Americans do, but value being well-rounded in the arts, a trait normally regarded as feminine.

This demonstrates that perhaps culture does play a part in shaping gender roles.

Question 9

Relationship between the wealth of a society and gender roles

Answer 9

It appears to be the case that wealthier societies (i.e. those with higher socioeconomic development) have smaller divisions between male and female gender roles i.e. greater gender role equality.

Question 10

Whiting and Edwards (1988):

Answer 10

Found that it was fairly universal across cultures that girls would be encouraged to take part in domestic and child-caring roles, whereas boys would be socialised into tasks involving different kinds of responsibility (e.g. looking after animals).

Question 11

Margaret Mead’s (1935)

Answer 11

Studied sex differences in temperament in three primitive societies in Papua New Guinea.

She found that the Arapesh men and women tended to be gentle, responsive and cooperative.

The Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power.

And the Tchambuli exhibited gender role differences in that the women were more dominant, impersonal and managerial whereas men were more emotionally dependent (suggesting the role of culture does play a part, as in most other cultures the reverse of this is true).

Question 12

Cultural Determinism vs. Cultural Relativism

Answer 12

Mead concluded that her data (from studies in Papua New Guinea) demonstrated cultural determinism.
This means that the differences between males and females are determined by social factors, rather than biological ones.
However, she later changed her view to one of cultural relativism.
In re-analysing her original data she realised that although both sexes of the Arapesh were non-aggressive, and both sexes of Mundugumor were aggressive, in all 3 of the societies the men were more aggressive than the women.
This suggests that some behaviours are innate and universal, but the degree to which these behaviours are expressed is relative to the particular culture.

Question 13

Freeman (1984)

Answer 13

heavily criticised Mead’s work, arguing that there is evidence to suggest that the people who Mead studied simply provided her with the information that she wanted to hear.
However, Freeman’s version has also been criticised for being inaccurate.

Question 14

Errington and Gewert (1989)

Answer 14

Conducted a study of the Tchabuli tribe (the tribe Mead observed ‘reversed’ gender roles in) and did not find evidence of role reversal.
This provides further evidence against Mead’s findings (….perhaps the participants were displaying a kind of demand characteristics).

Question 15

Buss (1989)

Answer 15

Looked at mate preference between men and women in 37 different cultures.

Findings:
Women desired mates with ‘good financial prospects’ more than men.
Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness and universally wanted a mate who was younger than them.

How do these link to the gender roles adopted by men and women?
It demonstrates similarities between culture.

Question 16

Williams and Best (1990)

Answer 16

Procedure:
Tested 2800 students in 30 different countries using a 300 item adjective checklist.
This involved participants deciding if each adjective was more frequently associated with men or women.

Findings:
They found a broad consensus across countries.
Men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous.
Women were seen as more nurturant, deferent and interested in affiliation.

Conclusion:
This suggests that there are universal gender stereotypes about male and female characteristics, regardless of culture.

Question 17

Methodological issues with Williams and Best’s research

Answer 17

The task was a ‘forced choice’ one - participants could only select male or female, not an ‘equal’ category, although they could respond ‘cannot say’. This could mean that the division between male and female stereotypes could be exaggerated.

The task was related to stereotypes and not to actual behaviours, but it could be argued that these stereotypes have an impact on socialisation within the culture and so are in fact related to behaviour, but this study cannot prove that.

Sample bias: All participants were university students who share common attributes - all well educated and may be exposed to similar global influences, which could explain the high level of consensus (and lowers the study’s population validity).

Question 18

If the evidence suggests that there are similarities across cultures in terms of gender roles, what does this suggest about where these behaviours come from?

Answer 18

Similarities across cultures would suggest a biological basis to gender roles, therefore undermining the role of culture and socialisation.

Question 19

what is Imposed etic:

Answer 19

This is where researchers use research methods and tools relevant and applicable in their own culture but alien and non-applicable to other cultures - this can result in flawed conclusions being drawn.

Question 20

what is Globalisation

Answer 20

Globalisation is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture.

Question 21

How could globalisation be contributing to the lessening of cultural differences?

Answer 21

There has been a reduction globally in the difference between masculine and feminine gender roles - this could be due to the fact that many people around the world are exposed to similar influences e.g. mass media.
This suggests that social influences do play a part.

Question 22

Perhaps an interactionist point of view would be best…

Answer 22

Rather than gender roles being simply a product of nature or nurture they may be better understood from an interactionist perspective.
Initial gender roles may be biologically constructed, but then later modified by social influences.
This could explain the basic cross-cultural similarities in gender roles and gender stereotypes, but also why these is some variation by culture as well.