The Great Famine Flashcards
Background and causes of the great famine - how did the land system make life precarious for so many in Ireland?
Land tenure?
Population increase?
Crops/Potatoes?
This famine affected the whole country over four years with long term consequences for the Irish people. The immediate cause of Famine was fungal disease which attacked potato crop. Disaster was unexpected since famine had disappeared from ENgland/Scotland. But wider origins of Famine directly related to structure of Irish social/economic life, especially land system. As Devon Royal COmmission reported in 1845, source of all Irelands misfortuens and poverty was fatal system of land tenure - manner in which land was owned by individual who was said to hold the land Land tenure - over the years most the estates had been carved up into smaller units and leased out to middlemen on long leases at fixed rents. New class of landowners had in turn divided up their estates into smaller farms and often charged high rents and lived as absentees in England. Process of division and sub division accelerated even further until eve of Famine - 24% of holdings were between one and 5 acres, 40% between 5-15 acres and only 7% were over 30 acres. At bottom of rural scale were million or so landless labourers who worked for farmers - could get work. Not easy when many farmers were so small and labour was plentiful and many were forced to become migratory workers who moved from one area to another. Underemployment was great social evils of rural Ireland. Even domestic work with many smallholders and labourers had eked out their livelihoods now drying up as result of decline of woollen and domestic linen industries. Major cause was dramatic rise in population. Roughly 5 million in 1780 and reacahed 8 million in 1845 despite 1.5 million emigrated to North America after Act of Union. Due to early marriage and high birth rate and to general improvement in health and diet occured in prosperous years. Prosperity was result of high prices for Irish agricultural produce in England. In country which virtually no industry outside Ulster, overwhelming majority depended on agriculture, upsurge in population was bound to lead to competition for land eben at high rents that then prevailed. Possession of plot of land became difference between life or death. Fathers who rented smallholdings prepared to sub divide further to help their families. When both encouraged subdivision and economically workable was spread of potato as stable crop. Potato enormous advantages for peasants. Easy to grow, flourish on poor soil, nutrious crop and produced high yields. Used to feed pigs and poultry. Subsistence on potato enabled peasanytry to concentrate on cash crops like wheat, oats, dairy to pay their rent while large farmers the provision of tiny plot of potatos provided cheap way of paying their labourers. On eve of famine about 2 million acres used for potatos and provided food for 3 million. West where plots were smallest and depdnecne on potato and poverty. Peasant diet was 12 to 14 pounds of potatoes daily with buttermilk and oatmeal.
The response of the UK Government - How did Peel achieve some measure of success in dealing with the early days of the Famine?
Peel had opportunity to carry through the repeal of the Corn Laws which taxed foreign grain entering the UK which he had believed for some time no longer economically defensible. To maintain Corn Laws while Irishmen starbed would be intolerable. As PM realised, repeal of Corn Laws could have little effect on situation since peasantry couldnt afford to buy grain and supplies from Europe were limited.
Government began by spending £100,000 on supply of Indian corn from America which sold cheaply so kept down prices of other grain. Peel ws devoted to encourafing landlords to organise committees to raise money for relief of the distressed and provide work on their estates. The Irish Boards of Works with aid of Treasury grants, began to employ men to work on such undertakings as road repairs and road building.
Measures successful in fulfilling immediate purpose of preventing exceptional hardship during months. No man died of famine during his administration. In August 1946 blight hit on wider scale and peasantry even less prepared but Peel was out of power. Did pushed through repeal of Corn Laws but shortly degeated over proposal for new Coercion Act to deal with potential food riots. Whigs came into power and John Russell who was now PM
Why did the UK government not do more to combat the famine?
Many Englishmen not prepared to accept logic of Irishmen who argued that existence of Union meant whole of the UK and not just Ireland should accept responsibility for Famine. It was Irish landlord class who should bear the main burden. Almost complete commitment to principles of Laissez faire - deliberately avoid getting involved in economic planning. No fundamental interference with market conditions and price mechanism as the main instruments for providing food for people of Ireland. In order not to undermine interests of traders/retailers, food must not be provided freely or below market prices. Public works had to be heneral utility and not to benefit particular individuals or interests - Lord John was strongly supported by Chancellor and by Treasury official responsible for organisation of famine relief. John Russell was moved by Irish suffering and measures intrdouced were haphazard and limited
What measures did the Whig government initially carry out and how successful were they?
Public works extrended, labourers paid less than subsistence level wagees to work on unproductive tasks on roads/bridges. By 1847, three quarters of a million employed on this scheme. By special Labour Rate Act - screw was tightened on landlords to provide work or pay labour rate - a burden which many resented. Demands by landlords and nationalists for productive work to be provided like land reclamation and railway construction were bushed asaide. Measures taken by government to avert famine proved to be inadequate. In respone to high prices, grain flooded to country and offset food exports that had continued since early days of the Famine. Wages paid to labourers under private/public schemes were insufficient to enable them to afford rocketing prices of the imported wheat and flour. So winter was grim for the peasantry. First deaths from starvation now reported in wage of famine came disease. Limited no of hospitals and dispensaries unable to cope. Fever spreading throughout Ireland as stricken peassantry in west moved into eastern rural areas and poured into the towns
How successful were government measures in this period of 1847 - 49? What were the effects of the systems
In spring 1947 public works projects and labour rate were abandoned and the government now pinned hopes for relief on direct help - free distribution of food via soup kitchens. Was to be funded through local rates thouh government was prepared to advance money to local authorities which was to be repaid later and by august over 3 million people being fed. Food provided by private charity and voluntary organisations like Quakers who did work in stricken west. But since hovernmnet insisted free distirubiton of food was temporary measure and harvest of last summer was good one, soup kitchen system brought to an end in Sept of 1947.
Government now decided to provide relief through Poor Law system, made avaiable to all those suffering from Famine. About 200,000 ill hungry and destitute were accepted into workhouses though those who possessed more than quarter acre of land refused entry. Since workhouses had been designed to cope with only half that number the conditions were appalling an disease spread rapidly. In 1847, 130 deaths in Limerick house alone. Since relief was financed totally out of Poor Law rates - Treasury provided some help and many Poor Law Unions were soon bankrupt. Owing to obvious inability of the workhosues to cpe with demands, system of outdoor relief set up and aout 800,000 victims of Famine given relief in own homes.
These expected to deal with consequences of final disastrous potato harvest in 1848 and aftermath until better conditions returned. Lord Russell told commons in 1949, in present state of Ireland, be capable of preventing dreadful scenes of suffering and death
Effects - burden of paying local poor rate was onerous for number of landlords and farmers since it was proportionate to number of tenants on their land and together with difficulties in collecting rent - led some of them to evict tenants and turn the land over to pastoral farming. Trend was accentuated by small holders voluntarily giving up their land in order to obtain poor relief. Evicitons in the famine produced some of the most heartrenching scenes during histsory of famine and desperation led to violence and intimidations and to isolated cases of landlords being murdered
The treasury spent £8 million of Irish relief on form of loans to Irish Board of Works or Poor Law authorities. About half of the loans not repaid by 1850 and money written of three years later. UK government congratulated itself on what it done financially for Irish relief - too much has been done for the people Trevelyan said. Ireland spent more than £8 million on its own relief adding the rates collected by various Irish agencies and private contributions from landlords and others.
One authority argued UK government relief expenditure was small in relation to its resources, amounting to no more than 2 to 3% of public expenditure. There were however lack of good communications, primitive system of retail distribution, ineffective system of local government, wide social regional and religioius differences
What were the economic and demographic effects of the Famine?
1) Population
2) Land
3) Farming
4) Living standards
1) About one million Irishmen died due to starvation and diease and further 1.5 million emigrated. Irish population declined by abour a quarter. Decline continued due to redcution in birth rate owing to later and fewer marriages in post Famine epoch, continuation of emigration.
2) Cottier class almost completely wiped out which ecnouraged consolidation of holdings with cottier plots taken over by large farmers many of whom survived Famine in reasonable circumstances. About 200,000 smallholdings disappeared. Members of landlord class badly affected economically - result of extra financial burdens imposed by labour and poor rates on top of mortgages and debts. About 10% of landlords were bankrupt. Whig government passed Encumbered Estates Act of 1849 to speed up sale of land, hoping would lead to emergence of a new more enterprising landlord class, prepared to invest money in their estates. 3000 estates sold in 1850s amounting to 5 million acres. New landlords turned out to be either speculators who raised rents through rack renting or members of old landlord class with enough to spare capital to buy cheaply the states
3) Aftermath saw emergence of more balanced farming system with less concentration on tillage and on potato cultivation and more on pastoral farming. Move to pastoral farming had been discernible after 1815 increased considerably after 1850 especially in form of dairy farming and export of live cattle. By 1870, acreage devoted to grain/potatoes had halved compared to pre famine though potato still important food staple in west of Ireland. Farmers and landlords expanded area of cultivation by well over a million acres adevelopment which reveals how useful, productive work could have been carried out in Pre Famine Ireland
4) Decline in population by reducing pressure on resources in Ireland led to rise in average living standards. Labourers wages rose, housing standards improved, old one room cabin began to disappear, Ireland became more literate and more urbanised society. Results of building more schools, growth of Irish towns at expense of countryside, both developments sign of prosperity of Ireland.
Family farms devoted to mixed farming became the norm. Middle class farming group now became key group in countryside. Domination encouraged by continuing prosperity as result of expansion of agriculture like pastoral farming. Farmers income rose by 77%. Helped by 1850 Reform Act which enlarging Irish county electorate, gave many farmers the vote.
What did impact did the Young Ireland Rebellion have after the Famine?
Failure of O COnnell repeal campaign and the death paved the way for emergence of extreme group of Irish Nationalists with YOung Ireland movement. Held UK government responsible for Famine and began to toy with idea of armed rebellion.
John Mitchel, formed own newspaper to espouse his views aided by people like James Dillon who were middle class literacy and professional men. Mitchels political views summed up in his notorious cry give us war in our time O Lord. Aruged legal and constitutional agitation in Ireland was a delusion and every man ought to have arms and to promote their use. Mitchel influenced by writings of Lalor on land question. Lalor anted sweep away landlord system as land belonged to Irish people and replace with nation of indepdent peasant proprietors. Move towards rebellion in Ireland encouraged by Chartist movement in UK abd even more by outbreak of rebellion in Paris in Feb 1848. It was UK government which acted first in May Mitchel arresed condemned on charge of trason and trasnported for 14 years. His followers began abortive rebellion in July 1848 but hopeless affair due to badly led/organised, no mass support from half starved, Roman Catholic Church against it
Irish Rebellion of 1848 ended within a few weeks in affray between handful of peasants led by YOung Irelanders, and police at remote farmhouse. Followed by subsequent arrest of the leaders but Dillon escaped. First the ideal of an indepdent irish Republic to be fought for and if necessary die for and the notion of a land war of tenants vs landlords as fundamental part of this process of liberation - as discussed and justified in Lalors writing on Irish land system.
The tenant right movement and Indepdent Irish Party - why was there not a greater political backlash against the Union?
During 1850s, Ireland succumbed to political apathy - lack of concern with politics and for middle class farmers this experess itself in concern with immediate social/economic interests rather than the more abstract doctrines of nationalism. Irish tenant leagues emerged at end of the Famine on local basis, in response to evictions being carried out by landlords and expression of new power of larger farmers based on now dominant position in rural Ireland. LEagues demanded tenant rifht that is fair rents and compensation from landlords for improvements carried out by tenants if they were evicted. Whig government promsied reform in this direction but nothing was done. Local groups combined to form all Ireland Tenant League in 1850 and were supported by small group of Irish MPs of all political persuasions calling themselves Independent Irish Party. But not even ideal of tenant right strong enouh to overcome social/religious differences particularly between Ulster Protestants and rest of Ireland. This saw temporary slump in farming prices in 1859 led to collapse of tenants movement at end of 1850s. But did succeed in making tenant right an important part of future Irish reform programmes. Indepdent Irish Party disintegrated, notable in election of 1859 the Tory Party actually won majority of Irish seats - linked with hardening on unionist sentiment in Ulster: one historian sees this as evdience of Conservative revival in Irhs politics in post Famine Period. No great Irish national movement emerged during immediately after Famine and status quo in Ireland remained relatively undistrubed unttil rise of Home Rule Party in 1870s
In what ways did the Great Famine change the nature of emigration?
Between 1815 to 45, about 1.5 million Irish people emigrated, about same number left between 1845 to 50, another 4.5 to 5 million emigrated during 1850 to 1910.
About quarter of emigrants went to England and Scotland where industrialisation provided plenty of work and where settled IRish communities had existed. Majority went to areas like USA.
Improtant differences between character of of IRish emigration befroe, during and after famine.
Most Irish familie before 1845 the prospect of emigration not something to be welcoimed. Ties of kinship, locality and land powerful enough to overcome leaving poverty stricken and over populated Ireland. THose who did emigrate were generally single, landless men from Ulster who well enough to afford fare.
During Famine - motivation and pattern of emigration changed. Key year is 1847 when after the winter, panic/hysteria gropped families like cottiers and labourers and led to amass flight from Ireland. In 1846 106,000 emigrated and in 1847 this went to 230,000 and most went to Canada and USA. Emigration figure for 1848 same as 1847 between 1849 to 1852 about 200,000 left annually and in 1851 some 250,000 left for North America alone.
Earlier years of famine, majority of emigrants from poorest groups and some higher up social scale as even better off farmers were faced with consequences of higher ratres and taxes, decline of commerce, disintegration of social life and loss of hope for future. After 1850, smallholders and labourers were mainly responsible for high emigration figures. About 2 million left Ireland during 1845 to 1855. Whole families rather than individuals who depared: poor predominated and all parts of Ireland represented among emigrants but majority now came from poverty stricken south, south weest rather than the north and Ulster
Emigration no easy option, true cost of passage across Atlantic was between 2 to 5 pounds. Too much for some emigrants, number were assisted by landlords - anxious to clear their estates of smaallholders or borrowing the money or obtained money or pre paid tickets. Virtually nothing was done by UK government to sponsor emigration. For many emigrants the 40 day journey was almosst as hazardous as famine conditions and were exploited unmercifully. Many of ships called coffin ships - barely seaworthy, conditions were extreme. 20% of emigrants perished on board or soon after landing.
It was hatred of ENgland based on virw of FAmine most too with them to the New World. Rise of large/political influential Ireland community in the USA in second half of 19th century. No coincidence then Fenian movement. Emerged out of and gained some of its recruits within American Irish community.
