THE FAMILY - FAMILY DIVERSITY

Question 1

What did Rapoport and Rapoport say?

Answer 1

Defined five types of family diversity, which reassure functionalists that diversity is still family and ensures society is successful:
Cultural diversity: diversity from the indigenous population to migrant households from diverse regions
Life stage diversity: at different stages of life families have different priorities
Organisational diversity: due to different patterns of work inside/outside the home and changing marital trends
Generational diversity: exists between families whose members are from different historical periods resulting in different attitudes
Social class diversity: due to different material resources, norms and values, socialisation and education

Question 2

What are the key points for the extended family?

Answer 2

Type of family that includes kin that are beyond the nuclear family, and can be vertical (beanpole) or horizontal
>1% of UK households are multi-family households, yet they are fast growing
The number of 65 year olds in the UK has increased by more than half in the last 40 years, according to Penny Babb
63% of the population think it is the government’s responsibility to provide a decent standard of living for the elderly
Khadaroo and MacCallum, Willmott

Question 3

What do Khadaroo and MacCallum argue about the extended family?

Answer 3

That within beanpole families, only children are adolescents tend to have a closer parent-child relationship rather than multiple children families

Question 4

What does Willmott argue about the extended family?

Answer 4

the kin do not live together, instead there is a main nuclear family unit that can rely on the network of extended family members, which could be due to the increase of technology and being able to stay in touch - dispersed extended family

Question 5

What are the key points for lone parent families?

Answer 5

A mother or father living alone with their dependent children
Increases in divorce rates and relationship breakdowns has led to more lone parent families
There were 2.9 million lone parent families in the UK in 2020 out of 27.8 million total households, which is an increase of 5.9% over the last 10 years
91% of lone parent families are a single mother and 43% of children in lone parent families are poor
The Millenium Cohort Study, Nick Spencer

Question 6

What did the Millenium Cohort Study find about lone parent families?

Answer 6

It was a longitudinal study following families of children born in 2000
7% of the families remained lone parent throughout the five years
7.9% of those who started as married or cohabiting became lone parent

Question 7

What did Nick Spencer argue about lone parent families?

Answer 7

Found that children from lone-parent families were more at risk of poorer health, lower educational achievement and anti-social behaviour due to material disadvantages

Question 8

What are key points of living apart together?

Answer 8

Some individuals choose to live alone but maintain long-standing intimate relationships with a partner who lives elsewhere
Levin identifies LATs as a newly emergent form of family which allows individuals to enjoy intimacy with the autonomy of living alone
Haskey and Lewis point out that for many, LAT is simply a prelude to cohabitation and possibly marriage

Question 9

What are the key points for nuclear families?

Answer 9

A father, mother and one or more children which may be biological or adopted
The most common type of family was the nuclear family in 2013 (ONS)
In 2014, ONS revealed there were 18.6 million nuclear families in the UK
Was the only form of family to decline from 1996-2013
Murdock, Parsons, Popnoe

Question 10

Why has the nuclear family been the only family type to decrease?

Answer 10

Decrease of people having children
Traditional gender roles are changing (eg Sue Sharpe)
Rise in single person households
High divorce rates due to secularisation
Introduction of LGBTQ+ families
New legislation (Eg Divorce Reform Act 1976)

Question 11

What does Murdock argue about the nuclear family?

Answer 11

the nuclear family is a key function of society, with four essential functions: sexual, reproductive, economic and education

Question 12

What does Parsons argue about the nuclear family?

Answer 12

the nuclear family provides primary socialisation, and stabilisation into adulthood

Question 13

What does Popnoe argue about the nuclear family?

Answer 13

there are biological imperatives or necessities that underlie the way families are organised (men and women are biologically different and their roles in the family differ due to this)

Question 14

What are the key points of reconstituted families?

Answer 14

Where two families join together after one or both families have divorced from their previous partners
In 2011, there were 544,000 reconstituted families in the UK (340,000 married)
11% of couple families with dependent children were reconstituted
Second marriages have a lower divorce rate - 31% compared to 42%
Bedell study

Question 15

What did Bedell’s study find about reconstituted families?

Answer 15

found that 10% of all British children live with one birth parent and a step parent
Over 50% of children who live in two different households take a positive view of their ‘divided lives’
2/5 of all marriages are remarriages
25% of children have experienced their parents’ divorce, and over 50% will find themselves with their birthmother

Question 16

What are the reasons for the increase in reconstituted families?

Answer 16

Changing attitudes to relationship - serial monogamy isn’t frowned upon
Changing attitudes to social institutions - eg secularisation
Increased life expectancy

Question 17

What are the key points for same sex families?

Answer 17

Consist of a homosexual couple living together with one or more children
Homosexual relationships between men over the age of 21 was legalised in England and Wales in 1967
Same sex couples have since gained the right to legally adopt children and were able to form civil partnerships in 2005
In 2014 same sex marriage became legal in the UK
There was an increase of 53.2% in same sex families from 2015-2018
Centre for Family Research, Weeks, Donovan and Heaphy

Question 18

What did the Centre for Family Research find?

Answer 18

That young children with gay parents tend not to see their family as drastically different to the families of their peers
They also found that these children liked having gay parents and wouldn’t change that, but wished that people were more accepting as they received prejudice

Question 19

What are the reasons for the increase in same sex families?

Answer 19

Changes in norms, values and patterns of marriage, divorce and cohabitation
Increase in secularisation
The effect of gay rights movement and legal changes
The media has increased the representation of same sex families

Question 20

What are the explanations for the changing trends of marriage?

Answer 20

Changing social attitudes (British Social Attitudes Survey)
The decline of family values (Patricia Morgan)
Individualisation (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Giddens)
The changing role of women (Greer, Sharpe, Langford’s research)

Question 21

How can changing social attitudes explain the changing trends in marriage?

Answer 21

Up until the 1960s, there was strong social pressure for couples to marry before setting up a home, and in the case of pregnancy outside of marriage, young women were expected to marry the father or give the child up for adoption
British social attitudes survey (Park et al)
1989 - 71% agreed that ‘people who want children ought to get married’
2012 - 42% agreed that ‘people who want children ought to get married’
75% believed that sex before marriage was ‘rarely wrong’ or ‘not wrong at all’

Question 22

How can the decline of family values explain the changing trends of marriage?

Answer 22

The new right perspective says that the declining popularity of marriage is a result of the weakening of traditional family values, and marriage is the bedrock of stable family life - alternatives such as cohabitation aren’t substitutes as they’re more likely to break up than marriage relationships
Patricia Morgan argues that in recent years, governments have given insufficient support to marriage through public support to marriage as an institutions and financial support through taxes and the benefit system

Question 23

How can individualisation explain the changing trends of marriage?

Answer 23

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim say that these changes reflect the growing trend towards individualisation in late modernity, where individuals are no longer bound to traditional norms and seek a lifestyle that fulfils their specific needs
Giddens also argues that in contemporary societies, people no longer seek romantic love but confluent love instead (temporary, fragile, intimate relationships)

Question 24

How can the changing role of women explain changing trends of marriage?

Answer 24

Radical feminists, such as Greer, see the decline in the popularity of marriage as a result of women no longer accepting oppression by their husbands
Sharpe found that in the 70s, working class girls prioritised love, marriage, husbands and children, whereas 20 years later they prioritised careers, education and financial independence
However Langford’s research shows that many women still fear being alone, and love is still seen as a natural basis for relationships and a way people can transcend in a meaningless and alienating world

Question 25

What are some statistics about marriage?

Answer 25

In 2012, around ⅓ of marriages were remarriages (high level of divorce hasn’t prevented people from marrying again
In 2013, 67% of families were married couple families

Question 26

What are some laws about divorce?

Answer 26

1969 Divorce Reform Act - removed the need for matrimonial offences, instead they just had to show that the marriage had ‘irretrievably broken down’ - making divorce easier
1984 Matrimonial Proceedings Act - reduced the time couples had to be married before they could get a divorce
2011 Practice Direction - directed divorcing couples to undertake mediation before court

Question 27

What are the explanations of changing trends of divorce?

Answer 27

Privatised nuclear families (Parsons and Bales, Edmund Leach)
Higher expectations of marriage (Ronald Fletcher)
Changing social attitudes (The British Social Attitudes Survey, Chambers)
Individualisation and reflexivity (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Giddens)
Changing role of women (Allan and Crowe, ONS, Cooke and Gash, Duncombe and Marsden)

Question 28

How can privatised nuclear families explain the changing trends of divorce?

Answer 28

High divorce rates goes hand in hand with a trends towards nuclear families
Parsons and Bales argue that the American family has become structurally isolated from extended family with the main focus on the relationship between husband, wife and children
This means there is less pressure from extended family to stay together
Edmund Leach argued that the nuclear family was the ‘source of all our discontents’, and the relationship between the husband and wife was overloaded with emotional needs (no surprise the nuclear family is a source of conflict)

Question 29

How can higher expectations of marriage explain the changing trends in divorce?

Answer 29

Ronald Fletcher argued that higher divorce rates were linked to a higher value being placed on marriage as couples had higher expectations of love and mutual support, rather than one based on economic and practical reason

Question 30

How can changing social attitudes explain the changing trends in divorce?

Answer 30

Up to the 1960s, there was a strong stigma attached to divorce yet today it is more acceptable and normal
The British Social Attitudes Survey found that 63% of respondents agreed that ‘divorce can be a positive step towards a new life’ and only 7% disagreed
Deborah Chambers believes that divorce still has a negative stigma, despite being a widespread, popular decision
The decline in religious beliefs and secularisation may also contribute to more divorce

Question 31

How can individualisation and reflectivity explain the changing trends in divorce?

Answer 31

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim argued that in late modernity there is less agreement over what marriage should be like - the nature of relationships is up for negotiation
Giddens argued that there has been a growth in reflexivity, where individuals reflect on their personal lives, and constantly question whether they are getting the best out of life
They also seek confluent love, which is a form of love based on deep intimacy where each partner gains emotional fulfilment from the other but it’s not based on permanent commitment

Question 32

How can the changing role of women explain the changing trends in divorce?

Answer 32

Allan and Crowe argue that the changing position of women in society has been one of the main factors influencing a rise in the number of divorces because they have more financial independence
ONS found that 65% of divorces were initiated by women, however women still find themselves financially worse after divorce
Cooke and Gash found no clear relationship between women’s employment and earnings and their likelihood of divorcing
Duncombe and Marsden found that many women who had been married for some years, became dissatisfied with their husband’s ability to take on responsibilities, leaving them to perform housework and care for the family’s emotional needs

Question 33

Why has the overall number of divorces has actually decreased since the 1990s?

Answer 33

the number of marriages has declined
People are waiting longer to marry so are more likely to know it’s long term
Most couples now have a trial period of cohabitation before marriage

Question 34

What are the key names for social class and the family?

Answer 34

Lockwood, Ivan Reid, Crompton, Val Gillies

Question 35

What did David Lockwood argue?

Answer 35

Connected certain attributes with classes
Working class: focus on the present, seek immediate gratification, success through collective action, chances of life based on fate or luck
Middle class: focus on the future, deferred gratification, success achieved through individual action, chances of life based on ability and hard work

Question 36

What did Ivan Reid argue?

Answer 36

Verified David Lockwood and that the working class marry earlier than the middle class (due to immediate gratification)
Divorce rates are higher in working class families
Middle class husbands are more likely to remarry, working class wives are more likely to remarry
Working class women bear children at an earlier average age than middle class women

Question 37

What did the marxist Crompton argue?

Answer 37

Believes that the family still plays a part in ensuring the process of class reproduction by equipping their children for their future roles in society
Wealthier parents can pass on money, family businesses or other financial assets, as well as give them an advantage in education with private education or tutoring

Question 38

What did Val Gillies find?

Answer 38

Carried out a survey of 1112 parents together and found significant differences in parenting, demonstrating that class is still significant in family life
Middle class parents used a range of resources to support their children (eg social skills and education), whereas working class parents helped their children develop strategies to help cope with poverty
Middle class parents emphasise their children’s individuality and right to be respected, yet working class parents were more concerned with keeping them out of trouble
Middle class parents felt confident about dealing with teachers and could get expensive specialists, but working class parents were reluctant to clinically diagnose a problem (eg special needs)

Question 39

What are arguments about class differences in family structure?

Answer 39

Willmott and Young found higher levels of extended kinship networks in working class families than middle class and that the middle class were more geographically mobile, living further from their kin than the working class families
Dench, Gavron and Young revisited Wilmott and Young’s findings and found only a few working class, while families with strong kinship networks, and that individualism was permeating all the classes

Question 40

What are they key names about class differences in child rearing practices?

Answer 40

Leon Fernstein, Blackstone and Mortimore, Ilan Katz, Bourdieu

Question 41

What did Leon Ferstein argue?

Answer 41

used data from the British Cohort Study to suggest that the working class parents show less interest in their children’s education than middle class parents

Question 42

What did Blackstone and Mortimore argue?

Answer 42

argue working class parents were just as interest but didn’t have the education themselves or the understanding of the education system require to be able to help their children effectively

Question 43

What did Ilan Katz argue and who does he support?

Answer 43

Supports Blackstone and Mortimore by arguing the stress of living in poverty may make it more difficult for working class parents to bring up their children effectively
Also points out that most parents living in poverty are remarkably resilient and possess strong coping skills in the face of the adversity in their lives

Question 44

What does Bourdieu argue about class differences in the family?

Answer 44

sees the difference between the classes as a result of material inequality which produces differences in opportunities and life chances

Question 45

What did Roger Bollard argue about ethnicity and family?

Answer 45

Suggested that when South Asian families first settled in the UK, they brought their patterns of traditional family life with them:
Large multi-generational households based around a man
Obligation to family members which was more important than personal needs
Sense of family honour (izzat)
Arranged or approved marriages
Low employment rates for mothers

Question 46

What points contradict Roger Bollard’s views?

Answer 46

Evidence shows that modern South Asian families expect more choice in marriage partners
Most South Asian families are based on nuclear rather than extended families
Levels of divorce and lone parenthood is increasing in these communities

Question 47

What did Berthoud argue?

Answer 47

suggests that South Asian families remain more traditional than white British (more likely to marry, marry earlier and less likely to cohabit, divorce or live alone)
considered African-Caribbean families in the UK to be families closest to post-modern individualism, although Mann criticised this suggesting that they were only following what was traditional in their countries of origin

Question 48

What did Lucinda Platt find?

Answer 48

highlights that 49% of Bangladeshi households and 43% of Pakistani households have four or more people compared to 16% of British households
Most likely to:
Live alone - Chinese (56%)
Live in cohabitation - white British (35%)
Live in a nuclear family - Bangladeshi (52%)
Live in a lone parent family - mixed white and Caribbean (29%)
These patterns show the different norms and traditions of different cultures

Question 49

What did Chamberlain find about ethnicity and family?

Answer 49

found high levels of extended family networks and support

Question 50

What are the key names for ethnicity and the family?

Answer 50

Roger Bollard, Berthoud, Lucinda Platt, Berthoud and Beishon, Chamberlain, Mann

Question 51

What are the key names for sexuality and family?

Answer 51

Giddens, Weeks, Donovan and Heaphy, Calhoun, British Social Attitudes Survey

Question 52

What did Giddens argue about sexuality and the family?

Answer 52

sees the emergence of new types of families and intimate relationships as part of a transformation of intimacy whereby individuals have much greater freedom to choose what kinds of intimate relationships they engage in

Question 53

What did Weeks, Donovan and Heaphy argue about sexuality and the family?

Answer 53

observe that many gay and lesbian people describe their households and friendship networks as ‘chosen family’
Rather than following the traditional heterosexual expectations, they are able to choose who to include in their family

Question 54

What did Calhoun argue about sexuality and the family?

Answer 54

argues that gay men and lesbians have traditionally been treated as family outlaws who threaten family life, however modern life has come to be characterized by greater choice
Lesbian marriage and mothering avoids the exploitative relationships typical in a heterosexual marriage

Question 55

What did the British Social Attitudes Survey find about sexuality and the family?

Answer 55

that 28% of respondents still thought that sexual relations between two adults of the same sex were ‘always wrong’ or ‘mostly wrong’

Question 56

How many same sex families were then in 2012, according to ONS?

Answer 56

there were 2,893,000 opposite sex couples and 69,000 same sex

Question 57

What did Chester argue about family diversity?

Answer 57

Argued that families are not strictly nuclear families, but are based on the nuclear model
He described them as Neo-conventional families (same sex, cohabiting, and joint conjugal roles families are based on the nuclear family)
Also points out that the statistics are misleading, as they are based on a snapshot, when in reality people move in and out of different households throughout their lives

Question 58

What did Somerville argue about gender in the family?

Answer 58

argues women in family life described in the past is outdated as things have advanced a lot with women’s equality
Although women still experience inequality in regards to domestic work and power, they now have the freedom to escape this

Question 59

What did Gittens argue about the nuclear family and diversity?

Answer 59

argues that the consensus about nuclear family is only maintained because there is a powerful ideology of the nuclear family, which is a misleading view that labels alternative family is undesirable
This ideology is portrayed in the mass media in the ‘cereal packet family’ proposed by Edmund Leach which creates an image of what the family is expected to look like