The EU: Aims, Roles + Impact

Question 1

what does the debate on the EU relate to?

Answer 1

its aims, roles and impact on UK government

Question 2

when did the UK join the EU?

Answer 2

The UK joined the organisation that came to be known as the EU in 1973

Question 3

what is the EU?

Answer 3

The EU is an association of 28 states (including the UK)

originally founded as the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, which has evolved into a political and economic union

membership of the EU has had a profound impact on the UK system of government, economy and other aspects of national life

Question 4

how long will the UK remain a member of the EU?

Answer 4

currently there are 28 member states of the EU, including the UK until we leave in 2019

in a referendum in 2016, the British people voted to leave the EU (52% voted to leave and 48% voted to remain)

The government is currently negotiating the terms of Brexit — it is a highly complex process

it is likely that the government will seek some kind of looser relationship with the EU, but this is proving to be difficult and the UK may even have to leave with no deal

Question 5

what has the process of European integration been driven by?

Answer 5

The process of European integration has been driven by numerous factors…

• promoting peace
• economic integration and the single market
• economic and monetary union
• enlargement
• social policy
• political union

Question 6

process of European integration: PROMOTING PEACE

Answer 6

The continuation and preservation of peace after World War II was a very important motive in the early years of the EU

The founding members were determined to avoid another conflict in Europe after the devastation of World War II

The war saw around 60 million deaths and involved many atrocities — The leaders of Europe did not want to see this repeated

Question 7

process of European integration: ECONOMIC INTEGRATION + THE SINGLE MARKET

what did member states seek to do? when was this achieved?

Answer 7

member states sought to promote economic growth by breaking down internal barriers to trade in order to create a customs union

The Single European Act 1986 furthered economic integration by creating a single European market based on the four freedoms (freedom of goods, services, people and capital) within the EU’s single market

much of this was accomplished by 1992 with the abolition of customs controls at the borders and the recognition of common product standards

however, the single market in terms of services (such as energy and digital products) has not yet been completed due to obstacles in terms of different national policies

Question 8

process of European integration: ECONOMIC INTEGRATION + THE SINGLE MARKET

how was the free movement of people in the EU guaranteed? what has happened as a result?

Answer 8

The free movement of EU citizens to live and work in other member states was guaranteed by the Schengen agreement in 1995

The UK and Ireland negotiated opted out from this agreement whereas a further four states (Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia and Cyprus) are expected to join the agreement in due course

although, some states have introduced temporary restrictions on internal movement within the EU in response to the 2015 migration crisis which saw more than 1 million refugees arriving in EU states bordering the Mediterranean in attempts to escape conflict in parts of the Middle East and North Africa

tensions arose between states that were willing to accept asylum seekers and states that feared they could not cope with the rising numbers

Question 9

process of European integration: ECONOMIC + MONETARY UNION

how has closer economic integration been fostered?

Answer 9

establishment of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was the eventual goal for a number of EU member states

this involved the creation of a European Central Bank and a single currency

in 1999 the euro was introduced as a trading currency and from 2002 it was issued as notes and coins

The intention of this was to promote cross-border trade and travel by making it much easier and eliminating the uncertainties caused by fluctuating exchange rates and the costs of converting currencies

this closer economic integration was meant to also underpin closer political union

Question 10

process of European integration: ECONOMIC + MONETARY UNION

what states have opted out?

Answer 10

by 2014, 19 states had become members of the Eurozone

but Britain and Denmark opted out of a single currency as neither was prepared to surrender economic sovereignty by allowing the European Central Bank to set a single interest rate

after the global financial crisis of 2007/8, some member states in southern Europe encountered difficulties because they did not follow rules laid down to prevent countries from accumulating unsustainable levels of government debt

Greece, Spain, Portugal, Ireland and Cyprus all required EU funded bailouts and in return they were expected to implement tougher budgetary rules under the Fiscal Compact Treaty 2012

The UK also refused to sign up to this treaty to distance themselves further from the EMU

Question 11

process of European integration: ENLARGEMENT

how has the EU expanded? what was the aim of enlargement?

Answer 11

with the end of the Cold War, the EU expanded its borders to include eastern and central European states that had previously been under Communist rule until the early 1990s

this led to the admission of 10 new members in 2004, Romania and Bulgaria in 2007 and Croatia in 2013

The aims of enlargement have been to further European unity and to create an expanded and more influential trading block by embracing an extra 500 million people

The new states could not be admitted until they had evolved into liberal democracies with functioning market economies and administrative structures capable of implementing an array of EU laws and regulations

there was doubts about whether some countries were developed enough to meet these criteria

Question 12

process of European integration: ENLARGEMENT

what did enlargement result in?

Answer 12

enlargement resulted in an influx of Eastern European workers into western member states which provoked concerned about competition for jobs and led to the imposition of a temporary restriction on free movement for Bulgarian and Romanian citizens

anxiety over eastern migrants and a fear that the EU might expand to admit more states such as Turkey was a factor in the U.K.’s decision to leave the EU

Question 13

process of European integration: SOCIAL POLICY

why has the EU developed social policy?

Answer 13

from the 1980s, to balance the economic freedoms of the single market, the EU has developed a social dimension to ensure that workers did not suffer disadvantage or discrimination

although advances in workers rights varied from one state to another

another aim was to create a level playing field for business in order to prevent them moving to countries where workers rights are weaker and labour is cheaper, which would happen if there was significant inequalities between states

Question 14

process of European integration: POLITICAL UNION

what type of institutions are there in the EU?

Answer 14

in the EU, there is no single institution corresponding to the executive or legislature that nationstates typically have

instead there is a perpetual state of balance between institutions that operate in an intergovernmental way and those that are supranational

intergovernmental = member states cooperate with each other in decision-making, protecting their interests and sovereignty while working towards common goals

examples of intergovernmental institutions within the EU include the European Council and the Council of the European Union

supranational = decision-making is transferred to a higher body which operates independently of nation states

examples of supranational bodies within the EU include the European commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice

Question 15

process of European integration: POLITICAL UNION

how has political union been furthered?

Answer 15

political union has been furthered by several developments…

• The adoption of qualified majority voting as the main decision-making procedure in the Council of the EU, this means that each state is allocated a number of votes in proportion to its population size
• Number of policy areas in which one state can exercise veto has been reduced
• moves to create a common foreign and security policy with member states pooling their defence forces for specific purposes such as peacekeeping and humanitarian missions
• involvement of the EU in aspects of justice and policing — for example, the European arrest warrant allows people who are wanted by the authorities to be extradited from one member state to another
• 2007 Lisbon Treaty introduced institutional changes that furthered political union

Question 16

process of European integration: POLITICAL UNION

what was the significance of the 2007 Lisbon Treaty?

Answer 16

The 2007 Lisbon Treaty introduced institutional changes that furthered political union…

• The European Council was given a permanent president who would serve a 2 1/2 year term that can be renewed once
• A high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy was appointed to coordinate and agree EU foreign policy
• A system of double majority voting was introduced — this enabled legislative proposals to be passed with the support of 55% of the member states representing at least 65% of the population of the EU
• Incorporated the Charter of fundamental rights (which the UK refused to accept as legally binding) which included rights to education, healthcare and strikes

Question 17

what do Eurosceptics desire and what do they criticise the EU for being?

Answer 17

eurosceptics desire to restore more control to the Westminster Parliament and criticise the EU for being an aspiring federal ’superstate’

Question 18

EU member states (development and enlargement) summary

Answer 18

1958 — France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg

1973 — the UK, Ireland and Denmark

1981 — Greece

1986 — Spain and Portugal

1995 — Austria, Finland and Sweden

2004 — Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Cyprus and Malta

2007 — Bulgaria and Romania

2013 — Croatia

Question 19

the 9 non-members of the Eurozone

Answer 19

The UK

Denmark

Sweden

Poland

Czech Republic

Hungary

Bulgaria

Romania

Croatia

Question 20

the 6 non-members of the Schengen agreement

Answer 20

UK

Ireland

Cyprus

Bulgaria

Romania

Croatia

Question 21

what are the five main institutions of the European Union?

Answer 21

European commission

Council of the European Union

The European Council

The European Parliament

The European Court of Justice

Question 22

European Commission: what is it?

Answer 22

The European commission is the executive body of the EU

it has mainly political and administrative functions

based in Brussels

a supranational body acting in the general interests of the EU and independent of member states

proposes EU legislation

Question 23

European Commission: what does it consist of?

Answer 23

commissioners are nominated by national governments and approved by the European Parliament

there is one commissioner from each member state

The European commission consists of officials nominated by each member state government

The President of the commission is nominated by the European Council and elected by the European Parliament

Question 24

European Commission: what are its main roles?

Answer 24

main roles…

• initiate draft legislation and propose EU laws
• ensures that legislation is applied correctly and enforces EU laws on member states and other governments
• administers EU expenditure, collects revenue and prepares the EU budget
• represents the EU across the world (e.g. in trade negotiations)

Question 25

Council of the European Union

Answer 25

The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making body of the EU

intergovernmental body

consists of ministers from the member states

meets up to discuss different policy areas such as agriculture, trade or the environment

takes decisions on whether to adopt legislation

works in close cooperation with the European Parliament

Question 26

The European Council

Answer 26

The European Council is an intergovernmental body

consists of the heads of government of the member states

meets up to 4 times a year

takes key strategic decisions such as admission of new members

Question 27

European Parliament

Answer 27

The European Parliament is a supranational body

has a say in the adoption of the EU budget

The only directly elected EU institution

can accept or reject nominations to the commission

enjoys the right of co-decision on most legislation with the Council of the European Union

members of the European Parliament represent large, regional constituencies

members sit in party groupings alongside members from other countries with similar political outlooks

Question 28

The European Court of Justice

Answer 28

The European Court of Justice is a supranational body that enforces EU law and resolves disputes between member states

Question 29

role of the EU in policy-making: negotiation of European treaties

Answer 29

treaties are legal documents that set out the powers of EU institutions and the rules for decision-making

The European Council is the key body responsible for negotiating a new treaty

The heads of government that make up the council have the authority to commit their countries to the deals they make with each other

The European Parliament then votes on the treaty

then the treaty is ratified by each member state using its own chosen procedure — The usual method is for national parliaments to take a vote on the treaty (although, Ireland is an exception because its Constitution requires a referendum to be held)

The first Irish referendum on the Lisbon Treaty rejected it, a second referendum was held after amendments were made and the treaty was then accepted

Question 30

role of the EU in policy-making: passing and enforcement of European directives and regulations

what are directives and regulations?

Answer 30

regulations and directives are two types of EU law

A directive sets out a goal that all member states must work towards, each state is expected to pass their own laws to achieve this

for example, the 1998 Working Time Regulations were passed in the UK to give effect to the Working Time Directive — sometimes known as the 48 hour week, a person cannot work more than 48 hours a week

A regulation is binding on all member states and is immediately enforceable

for example, the 2015 regulation on the common safeguards on goods imported from outside the EU

Question 31

role of the EU in policy-making: passing and enforcement of European directives and regulations

what are the stages in passing and enforcing EU law?

Answer 31

there are four main stages in passing and enforcing an EU law…

1) The European Council sets the broad guidelines for the Commission in its task of proposing laws — EU treaties set out basic goals and rules for lawmaking
2) The European Commission proposes new laws, before doing this it assesses the impact of new legislation and consults with relevant parties
3) The Council of the European Union and the European Parliament decide on the adoption of the new law, if they cannot agree then a conciliation committee is convened to find a compromise
4) The European Council and Commission’s committees are responsible for implementing EU laws, the Commission can bring a case before the European Court of Justice if a member state does not comply with the new law within a given timescale

Question 32

aims of the EU

Answer 32

The aims of the EU are set out in Article 3 of the EU treaty…

• promoting peace and the EU’s values
• establishing a single European market
• promoting economic, social and territorial cohesion
• establishing an economic and monetary union
• establishing an area of freedom, security of justice without internal frontiers
• combating discrimination and promoting equality

Question 33

EU values

Answer 33

The EU is founded on the values of “human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities”

these values form part of the criteria for new members

this means that EU membership has helped to embed liberal democracy in states that have been under authoritarian or Communist rule

Question 34

Single European market

Answer 34

four freedoms; freedom of movement, capital, services and goods

tariff free zones

Single currency, with some exceptions such as the UK

Question 35

what has been the impact of the EU on the UK?

Answer 35

Long before the vote to leave the EU in 2016, the UK has been described as Europe’s awkward partner

this is largely because it is unenthusiastic about further integration and has quite a difficult relationship with the EU

Question 36

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK

Answer 36

• social policy

* common fisheries policy

Question 37

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: SOCIAL POLICY

what is an example of the UK’s ambivalence towards the EU?

Answer 37

an example of the U.K.’s ambivalence towards the EU is the attitude of our governments towards the development of social policy across Europe

Question 38

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: SOCIAL POLICY

why did John Major’s government opt out of the Social Chapter? what happened when Tony Blair took office?

Answer 38

The Social Chapter, part of the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, is the most significant EU measure to protect workers rights

John Major’s government negotiated an opt out from this part of the treaty because he did not want businesses to be held back by ‘red tape’

but when the New Labour government under Tony Blair took office in 1997, it signed up to the social chapter

workers then received equal rights for part-time and full-time work, parental leave and entitlement to paid annual holidays

although, the Blair government was concerned with balancing social protection and labour market flexibility so was reluctant to support further extension of the EU’s role in social policy

Question 39

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: SOCIAL POLICY

what did the coalition government do?

Answer 39

The coalition government sought to boost economic growth by giving more freedom to businesses

for example, it increased the minimum period required for workers to claim unfair dismissal for 1 to 2 years of employment

another conflict arose after the ECJ ruled that the time spent by tradesmen travelling to a job must count towards the maximum 48 hour working week, but David Cameron took the side of business leaders and argued that this would increase their costs

Question 40

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: COMMON FISHERIES POLICY

what might this policy be a factor behind?

Answer 40

The common fisheries policy of the EU may be a factor contributing to the growth of hostility towards EU influence in certain sections of British society

Question 41

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: COMMON FISHERIES POLICY

what does this policy allow? what do critics argue about this?

Answer 41

since 1983, the EU has regulated the amount of deep sea fish that could be caught with a system of quotas

it has also allowed fishing boats from different member states to have equal access to each other’s fishing grounds

critics argued that this allowed large fishing fleets from other countries to drive small UK trawler operators out of business

they also maintained that the policies were ineffective in conserving fish stocks — for example, as a result of this policy, fish had to be thrown back into the sea in order to meet the quota

Question 42

case studies of the impact of the EU on the UK: COMMON FISHERIES POLICY

Factortame case (1990)

Answer 42

fishing was at the centre of the landmark ruling in the 1990 Factortame case

A Spanish fishing company called Factortame sued the UK government for restricting its access to UK waters

The law lords ruled that the 1988 Merchant Shipping Act which the government was using to justify his actions could not be allowed to stand because it violated EU law

this case established the primacy of EU law over an act of Parliament

Question 43

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

what has happened to the UK political system in response to membership of the EU? has it adapted or has it been fundamentally changed?

Answer 43

The UK political system has adjusted to membership of the EU but has not been fundamentally changed by it

The executive has altered the way it works in order to coordinate British policy and get the best available deal in negotiations with other member states and EU institutions

Europeanisation = The adaptation of UK government structures and domestic policies to EU policies and procedures (this is an uneven process in the UK)

Question 44

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

how has the role of the Prime Minister been heightened by EU membership?

Answer 44

EU membership has heightened the role of the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister‘s annual routine includes attending regular European Council meetings — David Cameron visited his fellow heads of government individually early in 2016 and attended the council in a bid to renegotiate the terms of UK membership in the EU

following the vote to leave the EU, Theresa May conducted a series of meetings with other heads of government in pursuit of a deal that protects vital national interests

Question 45

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

the role of ministers

Answer 45

The Foreign Secretary is important in supporting the Prime Minister and attending European Council and Council of the European Union meetings

other ministers attend the Council of the European Union meetings according to their departmental responsibilities

The Chancellor of the Exchequer represents the UK when Ecofin (the Council of finance ministers) is in session

while ministers responsible for other policy areas that are affected by EU policy such as agriculture will travel to Brussels at other times to meet with their counterparts

The council tends to ratify decisions drafted by a body of civil servants drawn from member states, known as Coreper

A minister with many responsibilities and who may spend only two or three years in a department is likely to rely heavily on work by such permanent officials

Question 46

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

the cabinet committee on European affairs

Answer 46

a cabinet committee on European affairs has been set up to develop UK policy towards the EU

A European and Global Issues Secretariat, located within the Cabinet Office, seeks to coordinate the approach of different departments to Britain’s role in the EU

Question 47

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

what does Parliament have a responsibility to do?

Answer 47

Parliament has a responsibility to examine EU legislation

ministers should not agree to new laws unless it has been debated or reviewed by the House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee, but in practice this is difficult to perform effectively due to the sheer volume of EU legislation

The House of Lords EU Select Committee produces thoughtful reports on developments in Brussels, but its status as an organ of the second chamber means it lacks genuine influence

Question 48

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

what departments are more extensively involved in EU deliberations? where have problems been caused?

Answer 48

some government departments are much more extensively involved in EU deliberations than others

for example, in areas including social security, health care and education, the EU does not try to influence the content of national policy

but it does insist on equal treatment for all EU citizens which caused problems when David Cameron tried to restrict EU migrants access to the U.K.’s welfare benefit system during his attempts at revising the terms of Britain’s EU membership

Question 49

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

what does the EU and member states have exclusive competence over and where do they share competence?

Answer 49

The EU has exclusive competence over competition policy, trade with non-EU states and the customs union

member states have exclusive competence over national defence, most taxation, health, education and social security

The EU and member states share competence over the single market, social and employment policy, agriculture and fisheries, regional development and environmental policy

Question 50

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

how does devolution have an impact?

Answer 50

devolution adds another layer of complexity

policy areas such as agriculture and environment, which the EU usually shares competence with the UK, have been devolved to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland

The central government in the UK must consult the administrations in Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast when the U.K.’s overall relationship with the EU is being discussed in order to produce an agreed negotiating position

this is why the UK may be seen to have a system of multilevel governance in which policy-making is shared by the national government, subnational bodies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and EU institutions

Question 51

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

how has the UK system already begun to change during the process of leaving the EU?

Answer 51

all is set to change once the UK leaves the EU and has already changed since the UK has begun the process of leaving

The process of leaving the EU is very complex seeing how closely involved the UK and EU have been for over 40 years

Theresa May set up two new government departments — The Brexit process is to be handled by the Department for Exiting the European Union (previously headed by David Davis) and the Department for International Trade (under Liam Fox) is responsible for negotiating new trade deals with non-EU countries

this is now necessary as the EU does this on behalf of its members, but now the UK must do it for itself

Question 52

the EU’s impact on the UK’s political system and policy-making

why has the issue of Scottish independence been reopened?

Answer 52

the SNP led Scottish government is demanding a second independence referendum because the majority of Scottish people voted to remain in the EU and therefore face being removed from it against their will

constitutionally, Scotland cannot negotiate its own relationship with the EU as it is still part of the UK, so the independence issue has been reopened