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[Y2] Intergrated Anatomy and Physiology > The endocrine system > Flashcards

The endocrine system Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 2 internal communication systems?

A
  • nervous system (rapid with physical connections)
  • endocrine system (slower, more precise system)
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2
Q

what does ‘endo’ mean?

A

within

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3
Q

what does ‘crine’ mean?

A

secrete

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4
Q

what does endocrine mean?

A

signalling system utilising the bloodstream to transport chemical messages collectively known as ‘hormones’

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5
Q

what are the 6 major endocrine glands?

A
  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary gland
  • pineal gland
  • thyroid gland
  • parathyroid glands
  • adrenal gland
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6
Q

what are the other 11 organs with endocrine function?

A
  • Skin
  • Thymus
  • Heart
  • Liver
  • Stomach
  • Pancreas
  • Small intestine
  • Adipose tissue
  • Kidneys
  • Testes (male)
  • Ovaries (female)
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7
Q

give a brief overview of the endocrine system

A

consists of glands spread around the body that secrete hormones to provide slow(er) but very precise homeostasis

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8
Q

what is the function of the endocrine system?

A

These processes regulate and modify the internal environment allowing for coordinated cellular responses to changes in the internal and external environment, facilitating reproduction, growth and development

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9
Q

what are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers secreted by specific cells / tissues that travel (often in blood) to act on specific high affinity receptors on/in a target cell.

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10
Q

what is a ligand?

A

any molecule or atom/ion which binds reversibly to a protein. [Hormones are ligands]

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11
Q

what are hormone receptors?

A

A cell protein that binds a specific hormone.
The hormone receptor may be on the surface of the cell or inside the cell. Many changes take place in a cell after a hormone binds to its receptor.

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12
Q

what is a signalling cascade?

A

what happens after hormone:receptor interaction

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13
Q

what is autocrine action?

A

occurs when a cell secretes a factor which then acts on the same cell to elicit a response

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14
Q

what is paracrine action?

A

Paracrine signaling is a cell to cell signaling method in which factors that are released from one cell act upon another nearby cell

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15
Q

what are the 3 classes of hormones?

A
  • steriod hormones
  • biogenic amines
  • proteins
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16
Q

what are the 2 types of hormone receptors?

A
  • intracellular receptors
  • extracellular receptors
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17
Q

what are intracellular receptors used for?

A

for hydrophobic / lipid soluble hormones (pass through cell membrane unaided)

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18
Q

what are extracellular receptors for?

A
  • Extracellular receptors are required for hydrophilic hormones
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19
Q

true of false:
hydrophobic hormones can be stored easily?

A

false
cannot be stored easily – usually ‘made to order’. Can pass through cell membranes. Interacts with an intracellular receptor of target cells. Excreted whole - not easily broken down.

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20
Q

true or false:
hydrophilic hormones can be stored easily

A

true
can be stored within the cells if they are attached to carrier proteins. Released on demand. Require an extracellular receptor for signalling to the target cells. Easily broken down.

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21
Q

what are steroids?

A

Steroids are any of a large class of organic compounds with a characteristic molecular structure containing four rings of carbon atoms (three six-membered and one five).
- They include many hormones, alkaloids, and vitamins.

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22
Q

how are steriod hormones excreted?

A

excreated unchanged via urine

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23
Q

what do steriod hormones bind to?

A

intracellular receptors

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24
Q

what are steriod hormones bound to to increase the half-life?

A

bound to plasma proteins

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25
Q

are steroid hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophobic

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26
Q

where are steriod hormones produced?

A

adrenal cortex or the gonads

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27
Q

what are biogenic amine hormones?

A

Also known as ‘monoamines’ – modified amino acids (e.g. tyrosine modifications)

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28
Q

are biogenic amines hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophilic
(except for thyroid hormone)

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29
Q

how does a biogenic amine signal?

A

via an extracellular receptor

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30
Q

can biogenic hormones be stored?

A

yes

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31
Q

why is thyroid hormone hydrophobic?

A

because it has a non-polar ring structure

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32
Q

what are the 2 forms of thyroid hormone?

A

T3 and T4

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33
Q

where is thyroid hormone stored? how?

A

Stored within thyroid gland - attached to thyroglobulin (a colloidal binding protein)

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34
Q

what are most hormones?

A

proteins in various forms: Small peptides, polypeptides or glycoproteins.

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35
Q

are protein hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

all hydrophilic (water soluble)

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36
Q

are protein hormones soluble (free) in blood? what does that mean?

A

yes, they have a shorter half-life

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37
Q

can protein hormones be stored within a cell?

A

yes and released rapidly ‘on demand’

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38
Q

what are local hormones?

A

Chemicals produced by ‘non-glands’ that act on local tissues

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39
Q

what are 3 examples of local hormones?

A
  • histamine (causes an inflamatory response)
  • serotonin (causes platelet activation, acts as an anti-depressant)
  • prostaglandins (potent wide-ranging effects: inflammatory, fever, regulating BP, ect.)
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40
Q

what are eicosanoids?

A

Signalling molecules formed from fatty acids derived from phospholipids on the cell membrane.

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41
Q

how is homeostasis regulated?

A

feedback systems

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42
Q

what are the 2 types of feedback systems?

A
  • negative feedback
  • positive feedback
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43
Q

what are negative feedback systems?

A

effector system opposes the initiating stimuli

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44
Q

what is a positive feedback system?

A

Effector system reinforces or amplifies the initiating stimuli

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45
Q

what feedback system is the most common?

A

negative feedback system

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46
Q

what are the 2 ways in which the hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland?

A
  • portal bloodstream (anterior)
  • direct nerve connections (posterior)
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47
Q

give 4 functions of the hypothalamus

A
  • Autonomic Nervous System responses
  • Appetite and satiety
  • Thirst and water balance
  • Body temperature control
  • Emotional reactions
  • Sexual behaviours
  • Child rearing behaviours
  • Sleep and wake cycles
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48
Q

why is the hypothalamus known as the master endocrine gland?

A

has direct control over the release of stimulating and inhibiting hormones from the pituitary gland

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49
Q

where does the hypothalamus have indirect control over the hormone release from?

A
  • The thyroid gland
  • The adrenal glands
  • The liver
  • The testes
  • The ovaries
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50
Q

where is the pituitary gland found?

A
  • Sits in a bony dip of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus, which it is attached to by a pituitary stalk.
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51
Q

how large is the pituitary gland?

A

pea-sized

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52
Q

what are the 2 components of the pituitary gland?

A

anterior and posterior

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53
Q

what is the proportional of mass of the anterior pituitary?

A

3/4 total mass

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54
Q

what tissue does the anterior pituitary contain?

A
  • Glandular tissue
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55
Q

what is the proportional of mass of the posterior pituitary?

A

1/4 total mass

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56
Q

what tissue is the posterior pituitary gland made up of?

A

neural tissue from the hypothalamus

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57
Q

how is the anterior pituitary connected to the hypothalamus?

A

Connected to hypothalamus by pituitary portal system (blood)

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58
Q

what regulates the anterior and posterior pituitary hormones?

A

the hypothalamus

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59
Q

what are the 6 hormones released by the anterior pituitary?

A
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinising hormone (LH)
  • thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • prolactin (PRL)
  • growth hormone (GH)
  • adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
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60
Q

what 2 hormones does the posterior pituitary stire?

A
  • antidiuretic hormone
  • oxytocin
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61
Q

what is the alternative name for antiduiretic hormone?

A

vasopressin

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62
Q

what are the 2 main roles of oxytocin?

A
  • parturition (childbirth)
  • lactation (breast milk ‘let down’ reflex)
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62
Q

what is the main function of ADH?

A
  • Primary involvement in water conservation by the kidney
  • Act on the kidney tubules/collecting ducts to increase water reabsorption from filtrate back into blood, thus concentrating urine
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63
Q

what other effects does oxytocin have on the body?

A
  • Sexual arousal, pair bonding, parental behaviour, pain tolerance, social memory and reducing stress/anxiety
  • Increased with hugging, massage / touch and trusting behaviour
  • Increases monogamy?
64
Q

is oxytocin a positive or negative feedback system?

A

positive feedback system

65
Q

how is the blood supplied to the pituitary gland?

A

Highly vascularised, supplied via Internal Carotid Arteries

66
Q

what is the pineal gland?

A
  • A small endocrine gland attached by a short stalk to the roof of the 3rd ventricle in the brain
  • Contains many nerve endings that go to the hypothalamus
67
Q

what is the function of the pineal gland?

A

produces melatonin

68
Q

what are the effects of melatonin in the body?

A
  • Fine tunes the body’s circadian and diurnal rhythms (including information to the hypothalamus)
  • Inhibits sexual development before puberty
  • Melatonin is Pleiotropic (Additional effects):
    • Anti-oxidant (cell protective)
    • Anti-inflammatory
    • Anti-hypertensive
    • Anti-thrombotic
    • Anti-lipidaemic
69
Q

what is the structure of the thyroid gland?

A
  • butterfly shaped
  • 2 lobes joined by a narrow ishthmus
  • highly vascular, surrounded by a fibrous capsule
70
Q

where is the thyroid gland situated?

A

from C5 to T1

71
Q

what are the associated structures with the thyroid gland anteriorly, posteriorly, superiorly and laterally?

A
  • Anteriorly: Skin, blood vessels
  • Posteriorly: Larynx and trachea
  • Superiorly: Thyroid cartilage
  • Laterally: Common carotid arteries
  • Medially/posterior: Recurrent laryngeal nerves - lie very close to inferior thyroid arteries
72
Q

what hormones are produced by the thyroid gland?

A
  • thyroid hormone (T3 and T4)
  • calcitonin
73
Q

what is the thyroid gland composed of?

A

spherical hollow follicles formed from circles of cuboidal epithelium

74
Q

what is the function of collide?

A

stores iodine and the thyroid hormones

75
Q

what secretes calcitonin?

A

Between follicles are parafollicular cells (C-cells) which secrete calcitonin

76
Q

how are Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) produced?

A

tyrosine residues bind iodine atoms

77
Q

what stimulates T3 and T4 release?

A

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

78
Q

what happens when T3 and T4 are stimulated by TSH?

A

they are released from inside the follicular cells and these diffuse into the blood

79
Q

which thyroid hormone is more physiologically active?

A

T3

80
Q

which thyroid hormone is more abundant?

A

T4
T3 (15%) and T4 (85%)

81
Q

most __ is converted to __ inside target cell

A

most T4 is converted to T3 inside target cells

82
Q

how much iodine can the thyroid gland store?

A

4-months worth

83
Q

what foods is iodine found in?

A
  • seafood
  • seaweed
  • some fruit/veg
  • iodinated table salt
84
Q

what does a deficiency of iodine cause?

A

increases TSH secretion causing enlargement of the thyroid gland (goitre)

85
Q

what are the 3 main functions of thyroid hormone?

A
  • Increase the Basal Metabolic Rate and heat production
  • Regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
  • Increases the effects of other hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline
86
Q

where in the body does thyroid hormone act?

A

acts on most cells of the body

87
Q

what stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones?

A
  • sleep
  • exercise
  • stress
  • malnutrition
  • low blood glucose
88
Q

what is the chain of hormones released to regulate thyroid hormones?

A

TRH –> TSH –> T4 & T3

89
Q

what is the regulation of thyroid hormones controlled by?

A

negative feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

90
Q

what are the conditions caused by abnormal levels of thyroid hormones?

A

hyperthyroidism / hypothyroidism

91
Q

what is an example of a hyperthyroidism condition?

A

Graves disease

92
Q

what is an example of a hypothyroidism condition?

A

Hashimotos thyroiditis

93
Q

what are some symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

A
  • Increased BMR
  • feel too warm
  • sweaty
  • weight loss
  • increased appetite
  • diarrhoea
  • anxiety
  • restlessness
  • tachycardia
  • palpitations
  • (exophthalmos)
94
Q

what are some symptoms of hypothyroidism?

A
  • Decreased BMR
  • cold
  • dry skin
  • weight gain
  • decreased appetite
  • constipation
  • depression
  • lethargy
  • bradycardia
95
Q

how do you test thyroid function?

A

test serum levels of all three hormones: TSH, T3 and T4

96
Q

which results from a thyroid function test would indicate primary hypothyroidism?

A
  • Increased TSH
  • decreased T3
  • decreased T4
97
Q

which results from a thyroid function test would indicate secondary hypothyroidism?

A
  • Decreased TSH
  • decreased T3
  • decreased T4
98
Q

what is the cause of primary hypothyroidism?

A

thyroid gland problem

99
Q

what is the cause of secondary hypothyroidism?

A

hypothalamus / anterior pituitary problem

100
Q

what produces and secretes calcitonin?

A

the parafollicular cells (C-cells) of the thyroid gland

101
Q

what are the 4 function of calcitonin?

A

Calcitonin lowers blood calcium by:
- Promoting calcium entry to bone - bone storage of calcium
- Inhibits kidney reabsorption of calcium
- [Thus, increases calcium excretion in urine]

102
Q

how many parathyroid glands are there and where are they found?

A

4 small parathyroid glands are on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland

103
Q

what hormone do parathyroid hormone produce?

A

parathyroid hormone

104
Q

what are the parathyroid glands encased in?

A

connective tissue capsule

105
Q

what is the function of parathyroid hormone?

A

calcium homeostasis

106
Q

what is the most abundant mineral in the body?

A

calcium

107
Q

where is most of the bodies calcium stored?

A

within the skeleton

108
Q

what 3 hormones control the blood calcium concentration?

A
  • calcitonin
  • parathyroid hormone
  • calcitriol
109
Q

how does parathyroid hormone increase blood calcium? (3 points)

A
  • Increasing calcium absorption in the small intestine
  • Increasing reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
  • Stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium
110
Q

what 2 arteries supply the thyroid and parathyroid glands?

A

Superior and inferior thyroid arteries

111
Q

what are the superior thyroid arteries?

A

branches of the external carotid arteries

112
Q

what are the inferior thyroid arteries?

A

branches of the subclavian arteries

113
Q

where do the thyroid veins drain?

A

into the R&L internal julular veins

114
Q

what is the nerve supply to the thyroid and parathyroid glands?

A

Sympathetic supply: Cervical ganglia (~C1-8) – causes vasoconstriction limiting blood supply to thyroid / parathyroid glands.

115
Q

what is the adrenal cortex made up of?

A

glandular tissue

116
Q

what hoemones are produced by the adrenal cortex?

A

group of steroid hormones called corticosteroids

117
Q

what is the adrenal medulla made up of?

A

Embryologically nervous tissue

118
Q

what is the function of the adrenal medulla?

A

Functions as part of the sympathetic nervous system

119
Q

is the arenal cortex essential to life?

A

yes

120
Q

is the adrenal medulla essential to life?

A

no

121
Q

how is the zona glomerulosa in the adrenal glands regulated?

A

negative feedback system:
- Blood pressure in the kidney regulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
- Potassium levels regulate aldosterone secretion by the adrenal cortex
- Circadian rhythm: renin, angiotensin and aldosterone all peak at night ( urine production)

122
Q

what are the 4 zones of the adrenal glands? what are there functions?

A
  • zona glomerulosa: salt
  • zona fasciculata: sugar, chronic stress
  • zona reticularis: sex
  • zona fasciculata & zona reticu
123
Q

what is the HPA axis?

A

a communication system between three organs:
- hypothalamus
- pituitary
- adrenal

124
Q

what does the HPA axis regulate?

A

corticosteriod production

125
Q

how is the HPA axis regulated?

A

by negative feedback system

126
Q

what is the main glucocorticoid?

A

cortisol

127
Q

what do cortisol and ATCH secretion show?

A

a marked circadian rhythm, lowest between midnight and 3am, peaking between 4am and 8am.

128
Q

what causes cushing’s syndrome?

A

systemic effects of high cortisol

129
Q

what do androgens cause?

A

male secondary sexual characteristics (present in females in lower amounts)

130
Q

what is the main androgen secreted by the adrenal glands?

A

testosterone

131
Q

what is the percentage split of testosterone production of the adrenal glands and testes?

A

andrenal glands: 5%
testes: 95%

132
Q

production rates of androgens are dependent on what?

A

sleep-dependant

133
Q

what is DHEA?

A
  • Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
  • The most abundant endogenous circulating steroid hormone
134
Q

where is DHEA produced?

A

Produced in the adrenal cortex (and testes/ovaries)

135
Q

what is DHEA metabolised into?

A

Metabolised into androgens (testosterone) and oestrogens

136
Q

what body system is the adrenal medulla part of?

A

sympathetic nervous system

137
Q

the hormones produced by the adrenal medulla help prolong the effects of what?

A

effects of fight or flight response

138
Q

what hormones are released by the adrenal medulla?

A

adrenaline and noradrenaline

139
Q

what supplies blood to the adrenal glands?

A

Branches of the abdominal aorta, renal arteries & suprarenal arteries

140
Q

what drains blood from the adrenal arteries?

A

Via suprarenal veins:
- Right gland drains into inferior vena cava
- Left gland drains into left renal vein then the inferior vena cava

141
Q

what is the nerve supply to the adrenal glands?

A

Coeliac ganglion (~T8) – stimulates secretion of adrenaline from adrenal medulla.(No parasympathetic innervation to adrenal glands)

142
Q

how is the adrenal cortex function regulated?

A

hormonally regulated not via nerves

143
Q

what is the pancreas and where is it found?

A

A 12-15cm organ occupying epigastric and left hypochondriac regions

144
Q

what are the 3 regions of the pancreas?

A
  • Broad head (in curve of duodenum)
  • Body (behind stomach)
  • Tail (in front of left kidney, reaches spleen)
145
Q

what are the endocrine pancreatic cells called?

A

Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans.

146
Q

what are the 3 types of Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans and what are there functions?

A
  • alpha cells - secrete glucagon
  • beta cells - secrete insulin
  • (delta cells - secrete GHRIH (somatostatin))
147
Q

what 2 hormones are used to regulate blood sugars in the body?

A

glucagon and insulin

148
Q

what is a healthy blood glucose concentration?

A

4 -7 mmol/L

149
Q

what are some symptoms of hypoglycaemia?

A
  • drowsiness
  • confusion
  • speech difficulties
  • sweating
  • trembling
  • anxiety
  • tachycardia
150
Q

what are some symptoms of hyperglycaemia?

A
  • damages delicate blood vessels such as those in the retina, kidney, heart.
  • Neuropathy (reduced sensation esp feet). Infection risk increases.
151
Q

how does insulin lower blood sugars?

A
  • Promotes Uptake of glucose by muscle and connective tissue
  • Promotes Glycogenesis (production of glycogen) in liver and muscle
  • Promotes Uptake of amino acids and synthesis of protein
  • Promotes Lipogenesis (synthesis of fatty acids) and storage of fat in adipose tissue
  • Reduces glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen)
  • Prevents gluconeogenesis (formation of new sugar from eg. protein)
  • Prevents proteolysis and lipolysis (breakdown of protein and fat)
152
Q

how is insulin regulated?

A

Insulin secretion by beta cells in the pancreas is stimulated by:
- Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest)
- High blood glucose / amino acid / fatty acid levels (post prandial)
- Gastrointestinal hormones eg. Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin

Insulin secretion is inhibited by
- Sympathetic stimulation (fight/flight, stress)
- Other hormones: Glucagon, adrenaline, cortisol, GHRIH (somatostatin)

153
Q

how does glucagon raise blood sugars?

A
  • Promotes Glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose) in the liver and muscle
  • Promotes Gluconeogenesis (formation of new sugars eg. from protein) in the liver/muscle
154
Q

how is glucagon regulated?

A

Glucagon secretion is stimulated by
- Low blood glucose (fasting)
- Exercise

Glucagon secretion is reduced by
- Insulin and GHRIH (somatostatin)

155
Q

what is GHRIH or somatostatin?

A

Growth Hormone Release Inhibiting Hormone

156
Q

what is the function of GHRIH?

A

Hypothalmic GHRIH inhibits secretion of GH by anterior pituitary

157
Q

what supplies blood to the pancreas?

A

Splenic artery and mesenteric arteries

158
Q

what is the nurve supply to the pancreas?

A
  • Parasympathetic: CNX (vagus) – secretion of pancreatic juice and insulin
  • Sympathetic: Coeliac ganglia (~T7) – inhibits pancreatic secretion and insulin

[Y2] Intergrated Anatomy and Physiology (12 decks)

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