The creation of the Weimar Republic and its early years of crisis Flashcards
1
Q
Summarise the factors which contributed to the collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
- No rapid victory in summer 1914
- Stalemate
- Allies
- Underprepared economy
- Failure of the Final Offensive
2
Q
Explain the lack of rapid victory in summer 1914 and why it contributed to the collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
A quick victory was High Command Strategy; the Schliefflen Plan was to achieve victory on the Western Front with a 6 week offensive in France and Belgium before dealing with Russia. As this failed, there was a stalemate as Germany had to fight 2 fronts.
3
Q
Explain stalemate and how it contributed to the collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
Having to fight 2 fronts led to a balance of military power, causing pressure. The allies naval blockade limited supplies whilst unrestricted submarine warfare failed to weaken Britain.
4
Q
Explain how the allies contributed to the collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
Britain and France had colonies with personnel, resources and supplies. In April 1917 the USA joined the war with 2 million men.
5
Q
Explain the role of the economy in the Collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
The economy was unprepared for a long war and whilst there was attempts to increase arms production this was offset but financial disruption and collapse of trade.
6
Q
Explain how the failure of the Final Offensive contributed to the Collapse of Imperial Germany.
A
In March 1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk created peace in Russia, presenting an opportunity to attack the Western Front. However, Germany were forced to retreat due to a lack of momentum. Meanwhile, their allies Austria, Turkey and Bulgaria were collapsing.
7
Q
Why did support for the war in Germany break down in early 1917?
A
There were no signs of morale breaking down until early 1917 when shortages, high prices, the black market and the military situation led to social discontent
8
Q
What were the effects of WW1 on food and fuel?
A
In 1916-17 winter was very cold leading to food and fuel shortages. It was named the ‘turnip winter’ as the potato crop failed.
9
Q
What were the effects of WW1 on civilian deaths?
A
Due to starvation and hypothermia, 121,000 deaths in 1916 were increased to 293,000 in 1918.
10
Q
What were the effects of WW1 on infant mortality?
A
Up 50 percent for the under ones.
11
Q
What were the effects of WW1 on the influenza epidemic?
A
In 1918, it caused 20 to 40 million deaths. Known as the “Spanish Flu”, Germans were susceptible as they had low resistance due to their living conditions.
12
Q
What were the economic effects of WW1?
A
Inflation caused longer hours whilst wages fell below the rate, rising by 50 to 75 percent whilst average price doubled. There was anger at the industry sharks making vast profits from the war. The middle class lost income and social status leading to resentment There was anger at politicians for enforcing a Total War.
13
Q
What were the effect of casualties in WW1?
A
2m were killed and 6m wounded leaving disability and trauma.
14
Q
What were the socioeconomic effects of WW1?
A
Food and fuel shortages Civilian deaths Infant mortality Made influenza epidemic worse Inflation Casualties
15
Q
Who sought peace after WW1 and why?
A
Ludendorff and Hindenburg recognised a worsening domestic front and likely defeat on the Western Front.
16
Q
What were the aims of the October Reforms?
A
Curb revolutionary disturbance
Create a constitutional monarchy instead of an autocracy
Kaiser had to hand over power to a civilian government.
17
Q
What were Ludendorf’s real motives in producing the October Reforms?
A
Better peace terms
Prevent revolutionary disturbance
Shift blame from the forces of Imperial Germany to the new leadership, creating the stab in the back myth which suggested that unpatriotic groups undermined the war
18
Q
What happened during the October Reforms?
A
Prince Max von Baden, a moderate conservative, became Chancellor on the 3rd October 1918
Constitutional Reforms created a parliamentary democracy
Wilhelm II gave powers over the army and navy to the Reichstag
The chancellor and government were accountable to the Reichstag
Armistice negotiations opened
There was a quick realisation the war was lost, causing shock after such hardship and propaganda.
19
Q
What triggered the German Revolution?
A
On the 29th October 1918 sailors mutinied near Kiel, and the government could not control the situation. By the 2nd November they had taken major ports, fearing officers would make them launch a suicide attack on the British fleet to protect navy honour. This sparked further uprisings.
20
Q
What happened during the German Revolution?
A
On the 6th November, workers and soldiers councils were established like soviets
In Bavaria King Louis III was deposed and an independent democratic socialist republic was declared by Kurt Eisner
It was clear reforms had failed and peace and the abdication of the Kaiser were demanded.
21
Q
What was the outcome of the German Revolution?
A
9th November:
Prince Max von Baden wanted to preserve monarchy but the Kaiser was delusional and there was worry about revolutions in Berlin
Kaiser would renounce and a provisional left wing coalition of the USPD and SPD would be formed by Friedrich Ebert
Philipp Scheidemann claimed a republic on the Reichstag balcony whilst Karl Liebknecht declared a ‘Soviet republic’ an hour later.
Kaiser informally abdicates and walks into exile.
22
Q
What were the causes of the German Revolution?
A
SEVERE WEAKNESSES in existing governing system - imperial forces still had power and reforms were insufficient to deal with turbulence.
COLLAPSE OF LAW AND ORDER - mutiny of sailors etc
MASS DISCONTENT - realisation war was lost and socioeconomic problems
ORGANISED REVOLUTIONARY GROUPS - lack of these suggests it was not a true revolution.
23
Q
Which three main strands made up the left wing movement?
A
SPD
USPD
Spartacists
24
Q
Who were the SPD?
A
Led by Friedrich Ebert and Philipp Scheidemann
Moderate socialists
Largest party in 1912 with a million members
Committed to parliamentary democracy
Wanted to maintain law and order with existing legal and police system and the German Army
Introduce Welfare Benefits
Rejected Soviet-style communism and moved to the right during the Weimar period
25
Who were the Spartacists?
Revolutionary socialists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
Aimed to create soviet republic based on rule of proletariat (industrial working class) through workers' and soldiers' councils
Army to be replaced by local militias of workers
Extensive nationalisation of industries/land
Introduce welfare benefits
Opposed national assembly.
1918 - membership of 5000
26
Who were the USPD?
Led by Hugo Haase and Karl Kautsky, they were a party of 300,000 who had broken away from the SPD in 1917
Wanted radical social and economic change and political reform with soviets working alongside parliament
Reform army, nationalise key industries and introduce welfare benefits
Ravaged by internal differences between those who wanted parliamentary democracy and those who wanted soviets.
27
What were Ebert's problems in 1918?
Fearful of extreme left gaining upper hand
Growing numbers of worker's councils - feared control would affect policy of gradual change
Feared return of troops after armistice agreement would cause social and political problems as the 2.2m soldiers had to be reduced to 100,000 under the TOV
28
What was the Ebert-Groener agreement?
[10th November 1918] Agreement with Wilhelm Groener, Ludendorf's successor, that the army would help maintain the stability and security of the new government in return for Ebert's opposition to revolutionary socialism and the preservation of army officers.
29
What was the Stinnes-Legien agreement?
[15th November 1918] an agreement between Karl Legien, the leader of trade unions and Hugo Stinnes, the leader of industrial employers, whereby trade unions would not interfere with the free market and private ownership in return for workers' committees, an 8 hour working day and full legal recognition. Endorsed by the SPD (linked to unions)
30
Were the army-industry agreements made in 1918 a success?
Army not really reformed at all and not committed to democracy, whilst employers resented the concessions and were unsympathetic to Weimar.
But, the Weimar government may have collapsed during its transition period without such stability.
31
What problems were caused in 1918 within the left?
In December, the USPD members of Ebert's government resigned over the shooting of Spartacists by soldiers, but split had really emerged over desire to introduce fundamental social and economic change which the SPD would not adopt.
The KPD, founded by the Spartacists on 1st January 1919, refused to take part in parliamentary elections, preferring instead to place its faith in workers' councils.
32
What happened in the Spartacist revolt?
5th January - occupied public buildings, called for a general strike and formed a revolutionary committee
Denounced provisional government and coming elections which they thought betrayed the revolution
3 days of street fighting and over 100 killed
Luxemburg and Liebknecht murdered in police custody
33
Why did the Spartacist revolt fail?
Detached from political reality
No real strategy
Just workers with rifles
Gustav Noske, the defence minister, had backing of army and 120 Freikorps groups with 400,000 soldiers - trusted them to use unrestrained force.
34
What was the impact of the Spartacist uprising?
National Assembly's first meeting switched to Weimar due to strikes and disorder in Berlin
Troubled atmosphere contributed to events in Bavaria in April
35
When did the first National Assembly hold its elections?
19th January 1919
36
Who were the major political parties in the Weimar Republic?
BVP, DDP, DNVP, DVP, KPD, NSDAP, SPD, USPD, ZP
37
Who were the BVP?
Bavarian People's Party led by Heinrich Held, formed from ZP in 1919 to uphold regional interests
Politically conservative, supported the republic.
38
Who were the DDP?
A centre party led by Walter Rathenau and Hugo Preuss
Support of professional middle classes
Supported democratic republic and committed to constitutional reform
39
Who were the DNVP?
Right wing, led by Karl Helferrich and Alfred Hugenberg, formed from old conservative parties and some racist, anti-Semitic groups
Tied to interests of heavy industry and agriculture
Monarchist and anti republican
Largest far right party in Reichstag - 15.1 percent in 1920 election
40
Who were the KPD?
Formed by Spartacists in January 1919 and led by Ernst Thalmann
41
Who were the ZP?
Centre party that became more right wing, major political voice of Catholicism and had broad range of support including landowners and trade unionists
Committed to the republic
Led by Matthias Erzberger and Heinrich Bruning.
42
Who were the DVP?
A new party founded by Gustav Stresemann, a conservative and monarchist. Initially voted against Weimar constitution but under Stresemann's influence, supported Weimar by 1921. Attracted Protestant middle and upper class support.
43
What was the evidence that the National Assembly elections were an achievement for democracy?
83 percent turnout suggested high faith in process
76.1 percent of electorate voted for pro-democratic parties
Solid vote for democratic parties SDP, DDP and ZP made it easy to form coalition government - the 'Weimar coalition'
44
What is the evidence that the National Assembly elections were not an achievement for democracy?
DNVP only gained 10.3 percent but had backing of important conservative supporters e.g. landowners, army officers and industrialists
The DVP and Stresemann , its leader, did not support the republic as they wanted a constitutional monarchy
45
Who drew up the Weimar constitution?
Liberal lawyer Hugo Preuss and committee of 28 members
46
When was the Weimar constitution voted for and how strongly? When was it ratified?
Voted for on 31st July 1919, 262-75
| Ratified August 11th 1919
47
What were the key ideas behind the constitution?
long-established democratic ideas of Britain and USA
| German traditions - PR and federal structure (central and regional governments share power and responsibilities)
48
How many Lander were there in Germany, as stated in the Weimar constitution?
17
49
What was the role of the President?
- Elected every 7 years by public
- Dissolves Reichstag
- Appointed Chancellor - usually leader of biggest party so the coalition would work
- Supreme Command of armed forces
- Rule by decree in emergencies - Article 48
50
What were the 2 houses in the German parliament and what were their functions?
Reichstag - main representative assembly and law making body made up deputies voted for every 4 years with PR - candidates distributed for every 60,000 votes in an electoral district
Reichsrat - representatives from 17 Lander with responsibilities in education, police etc. Could only initiate or delay proposals, and Reichstag could overrule it.
51
What was the Bill of Rights in the constitution?
- personal liberty and free speech
- freedom from censorship
- equality before the law of all Germans
- Religious freedom with no state church
- social rights e.g. welfare and protection of labour
52
What were the issues within the constitution?
- PR
- Relationship between reichstag and president, Article 48
- traditional institutions allowed to continue
53
Why was PR an issue?
Encouraged formation of small splinter parties
Virtually impossible to form majority government - compromise in coalitions led to instability
BUT arguable that giving everyone a fair say was more important
54
Why did the relationship between the president and the Reichstag cause a problem?
Intended to lessen fears that an unrestricted parliament would be too powerful (fears in right wing and liberal circles)
Result was massive power being granted to another, the president, instead
Hard to know who was the ultimate source of authority
Article 48 was described as a constitutional anomaly but were used to good effect in 1923 despite helping Hitler achieve power
55
Why was the continuity of traditional institutions a problem?
- civil service tended to conform to conservative values of Imperial Germany
- Judiciary maintained independence despite hostility of judges to Weimar
- army had great status and generals were linked with Junkers (landowning aristocracy). Only real authority with military capacity
- universities proud of traditional status - more sympathetic to old political ideas and rules
- at odds with left wing's wishes to extend civil rights and create a moderate, democratic society
56
Why was the German revolution limited in scope?
- civil service, judiciary and army remained intact
- power and influence of Germany's industrial and commercial leaders remained unchanged
- no changes in landownership
- SPD leadership hoped all the changes in welfare etc would happen after constitutional reform
57
What was the Paris Peace Settlement?
- 1919
- more controversial than new constitution - assumed it would be fair and based on Woodrow Wilson's 14 points
- resulted in 5 peace treaties with defeated enemies and the creation of the League of Nations
58
What happened when the draft terms were presented for the TOV?
National shock and outrage
First Weimar government led by Scheidemann resigned
Allies would not negotiate
Accepted on 237-138 votes in June seeing as Germany had no military capacity to resist
Signed 28th June 1919 by representatives led by Hermann Muller
59
Who were the Big Three?
Woodrow Wilson
Georges Clemenceau (PM of France)
David Lloyd George
60
What were Woodrow Wilson's aims in the 14 points?
Reduce armaments
self-determination
League of Nations
61
What were David Lloyd George's aims in the Treaty of Versailles?
Pragmatist - recognised need to compromise and restrain Clemenceau's revenge
- guarantee British military security and naval supremacy
- keep communism at bay
- limit French demands - excessively weakening Germany would affect European economy
62
What were Clemenceau's aims in the Treaty of Versailles?
- French nationalist
- revenge
- annex Rhineland and create ' buffer state' (would interfere with self determination)
- major disarmament
- heavy reparations to weaken Germany and recompense for damage of war to finance rebuilding
63
What were the key territorial arrangements in the Treaty Of Versailles?
- Alsace-Lorraine provinces returned to France; rich iron deposits
- plebiscites to be held in Eupen-Malmedy, Upper Silesia and North Schleswig
- 'Polish Corridor' created separating East Prussia from main part of Germany
- reunification (Anschluss) with Austria banned
- Saar area, a rich industrial area, administered by France but later voted to return to Germany in 1935
- Rhineland demilitarised from French frontier to a line 50km east of Rhine, but remained part of Germany
- colonies redistributed as mandates under control of League of Nations
64
What were the reparations terms in the TOV?
Fixed at £6600 million in 1921
Substantial payments in kind e.g. timber
coal production in Saar given to France
65
How was disarmament included in the TOV?
- abolish conscription
- army of 100,000
- rhineland demilitarised
- no military aircraft
- 6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats
66
What was the Covenant of the League of Nations?
Set out aims and organisation of League
| Germany had to accept but not allowed to join
67
What was the war guilt clause?
Article 231
68
Why was the TOV described as Diktat?
- very different from fourteen points, did not apply principle of self determination e.g. Austria and Saar excluded from new German state
- loss of colonies not in line with 14 points which suggested an 'impartial adjustment' but colonies were given to allies as mandates
- not solely responsible for outbreak of war - claimed they were defending themselves from 'encirclement' in 1914
- Reparations unreasonable and figure not known - signing 'blank cheque'
- Germany unilaterally disarmed as Britain and France remained highly armed and made no commitments
- excluded from LON - seen as tool for allies by some Germans
- military blockade until treaty was signed leading to food shortages and further military action if they did not co-operate
69
What is the more balanced view of the Treaty of Versailles?
Shaped by war and and not anti-German feeling
Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Germany made to sign similar treaties
- Clemenceau gave way over extreme demands e.g. annexing Saar and Rhineland
- plebiscites were example of self-determination, and Austria and Sudetenland had never been part of Germany before 1918 anyway. Alsace-Lorraine would have voted to return to France as it had been French before 1871
- Germany was not occupied so real damage occurred in France and Belgium
- TOV was mild compared to terms imposed by Germans on Russians in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which annexed large parts of Poland and Baltic states
70
What was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles?
- Germany still had considerable economic potential, potentially the strongest in Europe.
- by 1932 they were receiving more money in the Dawes Plan than they paid in reparations
- not really politically weakened; power vacuum left by Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey gave Germany chance to be influential
- main problem was that the TOV was linked to the stab in the back myth
- the new democracy of Weimar had to take responsibility for Imperial Germany's actions
71
What happened to the USPD?
Disbanded in 1920
| Members joined either KPD or SPD
72
What was Red Bavaria?
- Kurt Eisner, USPD leader, struggled to unite socialist parties
- assassinated 21st February 1919
- Bavarian Soviet Republic with 'Red Army' set up by Eugen Levine
- Freikorps and army crushed republic with 1000 deaths in May ("White Terror")
- Traumatic episode in conservative, agricultural Catholic area shifted politics to right and became extremist haven
73
What was the 'German October'?
- During 1923 crisis KPD and SPD formed a coalition regional government in Saxony and Thuringia.
- Communists went further and made military preparations for uprising with 'Proletarian Hundreds (Defence Units)
- Stresemann's government crushed units with army and the regional governments were re-created without communists
74
Why was the left not powerful enough to lead a revolution against the Weimar Republic?
- Bad co-ordination - even during chaos of 1923 the left could not mount a unified attack
- Poor leadership - able leaders killed by Freikorps and successors suffered from internal divisions and disagreements
- Concessions - Weimar government played on differences within extreme left by making concessions which split it, e.g. over the Kapp Putsch in March 1920
- Repression - authorities systematically repressed the rebels with considerable brutality.
75
What was the ideology of the extreme right?
- Anti-democracy
- Anti-Marxism (threat to property ownership/wealth)
- Authoritarianism - thought it would be stronger
- Nationalism - "stab in the back" myth and the "November Criminals"
76
Who were the Freikorps?
nearly 200 paramilitary units resulting from the demobilisation of the armed forces
anti-republican and no respect for Weimar government
77
Who were the Consul Organisation?
Right wing organisation that assassinated:
- Matthias Erzberger - Catholic ZP member who signed armistice
- Walther Rathenau - foreign minister 1921-1922 because he was Jewish and committed to democracy
- Karl Gareis, leader of USPD, murdered June 1921
78
How many political murders were there 1919-1922?
22 by left wing and 354 by right wing
79
What happened during the Kapp Putsch?
March 1920
Proposed to disband Ehrhardt Marine Brigade and the Baltikum (army brigades) to meet with TOV terms
Wolfgang Kapp and General Luttwitz led 12,000 troops marching on Berlin and seized main buildings unopposed, installed a new government
80
How was the Kapp Putsch defeated?
Army did not support government - General von Seeckt, senior officer in Defence Ministry said "troops do not fire on troops"
Government forced to flee capital for Stuttgart
SPD members called for general strike, paralysing the capital
Kapp and his government fled city
81
What was the impact of the Kapp Putsch?
- army did not support government and the latter failed to confront this problem months after the coup
- Seeckt made chief of the army command due to confidence of fellow officers despite lack of sympathy for Weimar; turned blind eye to TOV to increase size of army
- aftermath of putsch and failure to reform structure made it a 'state within a state'
82
How did the actions of the judiciary during the Kapp Putsch undermine Weimar?
Only 1 of 705 prosecuted was found guilty and was sentenced to 5 years imprisonment
83
Who were the key players in the Munich Putsch?
ultra-conservative Gustav von Kahr, leader of the Bavarian government
General von Lossow, army commander in Bavaria, who had fallen under Kahr's spell by October 1923 and was beginning to disobey orders from the defence minister in Berlin
Hitler
Erich von Ludendorff, retired general
84
What happened during the Munich Putsch?
November 1923 Kahr and Lossow feared failure and abandoned the plan
On 8th November Hitler and the Nazi's took control of a meeting led by Kahr in a Munich beer hall and declared a 'national revolution'
Under pressure, Kahr and Lossow co-operated
85
What was the outcome of the Munich Putsch?
The army, under Seeckt, resisted the putsch (Hitler called him a 'lackey of the Weimar Republic'
Bavarian police easily crushed the putsch when the Nazis attempted to take Munich the next day
14 Nazis killed
Hitler was sentenced to 5 years at Landsberg castle, the minimum for treason, and only served 10 months
Ludendorff acquitted on grounds he was there by accident!
86
How did support for democracy decline in the 1920 election?
Support for the three main democratic parties (SDP, DDP,ZP) declined from 76.1 per cent in 1919 to 48 percent in 1920
87
Why did Germany face fundamental economic problems by 1919?
- Loss of resources from Saar, Alsace-Lorraine and Silesia, causing a 16 per cent decline in coal production, a 48 per cent loss of iron ore and a 13 per cent decline in arable agricultural land
- cost of reparations
- increase in prices - nearly fourfold between 1914 and 1918
- Increase in national debt to 144,000 million marks by 1919 compared to 5000 million marks in 1914
- relied on exports for economic growth but during the war trade collapsed and was still sluggish
88
What were the long term causes of hyperinflation in the Ruhr?
- Unprepared for long war as Kaiser refused to raise taxes for political reasons despite increasing cost
- during war government borrowed massive sums by selling war bonds
- during war only 16 per cent of war expenditure was raised for taxation and 84 per cent was borrowed
- during the war the economy was focussed on military production, creating a higher demand for consumer goods and a raise in prices
89
What were the medium term causes of hyperinflation in the Ruhr?
- Weimar government would not increase taxes or cut spending after war to avoid alienating the public
- Weimar finance minister Erzberger decided against balancing the budget and used deficit financing instead to stimulate the economy but a by-product was that inflation continued
- Forced to pay reparations in hard currency; printed more marks to buy foreign currencies
90
What were the short term causes of hyperinflation in the Ruhr?
- Weimar government postponed reparations payment in 1922
- French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr
- Germany was unable to make money by selling resources but still had to pay reparations.
- the French prevented coal deliveries to the rest of Germany so it had to be imported
- the government were unable to collect taxes from the Ruhr.
- the government led by Wilhelm Cuno urged workers to strike whilst guaranteeing wages.
91
Who benefitted from hyperinflation?
- those paying debts and mortgages
- those who exploited situation by buying property from the financially desperate
- businessmen profited by borrowing cheaply and investing in new enterprises (Hugo Stinnes controlled 20 per cent of industry by 1923) and by making sales to foreign countries due to attractive rate of exchange
- German state - large parts of debt paid off (excluding reparations)
- Peasants coped well due to food remaining in demand, and self sufficiency
- Mittlestand - shopkeepers and craftsmen did well if prepared to exploit market
92
Who lost out during hyperinflation?
- Those with savings with money in banks with interest rates
- war bonds worthless
- those on fixed incomes, on welfare or on pensions
- landlords - fixed income declined in real terms
- industrial workers as unions failed to negotiate wage settlements and wages could not keep pace with inflation (but had fewer savings so proportionally lost less)
- civil servants were dependant on fixed salaries and many bought war bonds, although some had mortgaged properties so made gains
93
What were the problems Stresemann had to solve in his 100 days?
- German currency had collapsed and hyperinflation had set in
- French and Belgian troops occupying Ruhr
- German government had no clear policy on the occupation except for passive resistance
- various left wing disturbances including German October and ultra-conservative state government in Bavaria defying government resulting in Munich Putsch
94
How did Stresemann deal with hyperinflation in his 100 days?
- Hans Luther cut government spending and over 700,000 public employees were sacked
- December 1923 - Hjalmar Schacht created Rentenmark
- Dawes Plan - US loans to Germany and fixed reparations payments in accordance with ability
95
How did Stresemann deal with Ruhr occupation in his 100 days?
Called off passive resistance
needed to conciliate French to evoke international sympathy
promised to resume reparations payments
96
How did Stresemann deal with political issues in his 100 days?
German army used to defeat German October and Munich Putsch
97
Why did Weimar survive the 1923 crisis?
- Popular anger at French and Allies not Weimar government itself
- despite inflation workers did not suffer the way they did during mass unemployment in the 1930s
- some businessmen did well out of inflation, making them tolerant of the republic
- there was no real alternative as the left and right were both divided and weak. The army made no move having learnt from their hasty actions in the Kapp Putsch
