The creation of the Weimar Republic and its early years of crisis

Question 1

Describe reasons for why Germany faced military defeat in 1918?

Answer 1

• Germany failed to get rapid victory in 1914, High Commands strategy built on quick victory but Schlieffen Plan failed to gain victory
• Germany forced to fight war on two fronts - east & west - stalemate put pressure on imperial Germany
• Strengths of the Allies: Britain/France were major colonial powers and could call on overseas empires - also USA entry in 1917
• Limitations of the German war economy: Imperial Germany totally unprepared for economic costs, made efforts to increase arm productions but economy dislocated
• Failure of the final offensive: chance for Germany to escape defea came when Russia signed for peace - immediately enabled Germany to launch major offensive but unable to maintain momentum

Question 2

What were the socio-economic effects of the First World War?

Answer 2

Accumulation of shortages, high prices and black markets began to affect public mood
Food/fuel shortages - nickname Turnip Winter because of failing Potato Crop
Civilian deaths - mum be of deaths from starvation/hypothermia went to 293,000 in 1918
Infant mortality - increased by 50% in course of war years
Influenza epidemic - Europe hit by Spanish Flu which killed 20 - 40 million people
Inflation - workers forced to work even longer but wages fell
Casualties - 2 million Germans killed with further 6 million wounded

Question 3

What were the political changes caused by the October reform in Germany?

Answer 3

Ludendorff political turnaround had 2 aims - first wanted to secure for Germany best possible pear terms, believing Allies be more sympathetic to democratic regime and hoped change would prevent outbreak of political revolutionary disturbance. Also need to shift responsibility for Germany’s defeat away from military leadership.
On 3rd October 1918 - Max con Baden appointed Chancellor had democratic views and well established international reputation. Turned Germany into parliamentary democracy - Wilhelm II gave up powers to Reichstag, chancellor/government made accountable to Reichstag and the armistice with Allies were opened

Question 4

What was the German Revolution?

How and why did the October reform fail to prevent November revolution?

Answer 4

On 29 October - mutiny began to spread among sailors who refused to obey orders near Kiel. Prince Max government lost control and by 2 November, sailors taken charge of major ports like Kiel and Hamburg. Takeovers prompted by fear among sailors that officers were planning a suicide attack on British fleet to restore honour of German navy.
By 6 November numerous workers and soldiers councils similar to Soviets were established in cities of Berlin, Cologne - in Bavaria, last member of House of Wittlsbach was deposed and socialist Eisner proclaimed Bavaria an independent democratic socialist republic
October reforms failed to impress the people - popular discontent turning into revolutionary movement whose demands were for I mediated peace and abdication of Wilhem II - realisation by troops/soldiers war was lost, sense of national shock, increasing anger/bitterness over socio-economic conditions
9 November - announced Kaiser would renounce throne and left wing provisional government formed by Ebert

Question 5

Describe some of the left wing movements (name 3).

Answer 5

SPD (German Social Democratic Party) - moderate socialist aims and led by Friedrich Ebert and Scheidemann. Dated from 1875 - in election of 1912 became largest party in Reichstag. Aims were to create socialist republic but being wholly committed to parliamentary democracy
Spartacists - on extreme left led by Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg - formed in 1905 as minor faction of SPD and membership of 5000 by 1918. Opposed war and influenced by Lenin and should follow same path as communist China - create a soviet republic
USPD - formed in 1917 as breakaway from SPD. Led by Haase and Kautsky - USPD was minority in assembly and demanded radical social and economic change as well as political reforms.

Question 6

What were Ebert’s main problems?

1) Socio-economic
2) Left-wing opposition
3) Right-wing opposition
4) Military

Answer 6

1) Inflation, wages falling behind prices, fuel and food shortages causing hardship, flu epidemic with Spanish Flu killing thousands
2) From Autumn 1918 strikes increased, German communists bring revolution, Workers/soldiers councils created wanting changes to army and industry
3) Freikorps, nationalist soldiers forming paramilitary groups, army was conservative and embittered by defeat, nationalist conservatives were against abdication and no support for new republic
4) demobilisation with about 1.5 million soldiers returning from war, allies maintained naval blockade, armistice when agreed but public concern about terms and effects of peace treaty

Question 7

Describe the Ebert-Groener agreement?

Answer 7

On 10 November, Wilhelm Groener telephoned Ebert - phone conversation significant.
Supreme Army Command agreed to support new government and use troops to maintain stability and security of the new republic
Ebert promised to oppose the spread of revolutionary socialism and preserve authority of the army officers

Question 8

Describe the Stinnes-Legien agreement?

Answer 8

On 15 November, Karl Legien, leader of trade unions and Huge Stinnes leader of the industrial employers held discussion.
Deal where trade unions made commitment not to interfere with private ownership and the free market in return for workers committees an eight hour working day and full legal recognition.
Ebert endorsed this - German trade unions powerful movement and closely tied with the SPD

Question 9

Describe the Spartacist Revolt?
Include...
- Key figures
- Dates
- Events
- Consequences

Answer 9

January 1919, uprising in Berlin with aim of overthrowing provisional government in order to create soviet republic
5 January - occupied public buildings, general strike and formed revolution committee.
Little chance of success - three days of fighting and over 100 killed - coup was defeated and Liebknecht and Luxemburg were murdered in police custody
No real strategy and revolutionaries were just workers with rifles. Government defence minister Noske had army and Freikorps with about 400,000 soldiers

Question 10

What were the results of the elections for the National Assembly on 19 January 1919?

Answer 10

Creation of National Assembly on 6th February
SPD largest party with 165 seats
ZP 91 seats
DDP 75 seats
Turnout of 83%, 76.1% were pro democratic parties - vote for three main democratic parties led to straightforward coalition known as the Weimar coalition

Question 11

What was the Weimar Constitution and state the key terms of the constitution?

• President
• Parliament
• Voting system
• Bill of Rights
• Supreme Court

Answer 11

Germany declared a democratic state although retained Reich title. It was a republic and had federal structure with 17 Lander like Prussia, Bavaria

President - elected every 7 years and had right to dissolve Reichstag, appointed the Chancellor (normally leader of largest party to form workable government coalition), position of supreme commander for armed forces and capacity to rule by decree at time of national emergency - Article 48

Parliament - Two houses, Reichstag was main representative assembly and law making body. consisted of deputies elected every 4 years on basis of PR which allocated members of parliament from list of party candidates - one member for every 60,000 votes. The Reichsrat was less important house but made up of representatives from each Lander which held local responsibilities like education and police - Reichstag could always overrule the Reichsrat

Bill of Rights - constitution drew up range of rights - personal liberty and right to free speech, freedom from censorship, equality before law of all Germans, religious freedom, provide welfare and protection of labour

Supreme Court - Settle interpretations of law

Proportional Representation - virtually impossible for one party to form a majority government so sometimes coalitions of 3/4 parties created. Allocates parliamentary seats to the proportion of votes for the party - did lead to rise in fascist parties

Question 12

What was the relationship like between the president and the Reichstag?

Answer 12

Meant to have fair system of checks and balances but more complex. Intended to lessen fears that an unrestricted parliament would become too powerful. Presidents powers seen as amounting to substitute emperor.
Presidents article 48 meant head of state with authority to suspend civil rights in emergency and restore law and order - only to function in a crisis but effect was to override the Reichstag

Question 13

What were some of the continuity of traditional institutions?

Answer 13

• civil services well educated but tended to conform to conservative values from Imperial Germany
• judiciary continued to enjoy traditional independence under Weimar constitution but judges didn’t lie with Weimar Republic
• Army enjoyed greate status and liked with the Junkers but not sympathetic to democratic Germany
• Universities proud of traditional status and more sympathetic to old ideas/rules

Question 14

What was the Big Three, identify the three characters and the aims of each?

Answer 14

Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau and David Lloyd George
Wilson - reduce armaments, apply self-determination, create a League of Nations to maintain international peace
Clemenceau - French nationalist, gain financial compensation, annex Rhineland and create cuffed state, impose disarmament on Germany, impose heavy reparations
Lloyd George - pragmatist, must be a compromise, guarantee British military security, keep communism at bay, limit French demands because feared excessive weakening on Germany would have serious effects on European economy

Question 15

What were the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?

• Territory
• Guilt
• Reparations
• Disarmament

Answer 15

Territory - Beligum gained Eupen/Malmedy, Alsace Lorraine returned to France, North Schleswig to Denmark, West Prussia surrendered and Posen to Poland, Upper Silesia - plebiscite, Austria - reunification of Austria with Germany forbidden, Saar placed under LEague of Nations control, Rhineland demilitarised from French frontier, German colonies distributed as mandates
Guilt - Germany forced to sign war guilt clause
Reparations - Sum fixed by Inter-Allied Reparations Commission fixed at £6600 million - also make payments in kind like timber and coal
Disarmament - abolish conscription, army of 100,000, no military aircraft, German navy only 6 battleships, twelve destroyers and no submarines allowed

Question 16

What was the term Diktat known as and what were Germany’s main complaints?

Answer 16

Diktat - dictated peace, Germans felt it was imposed without negotiation

• Treaty was considered different from Wilson’s 14 points and how self-determination was not applied
• Loss of colonies not in line with Wilson’s points
• Germany found it impossible to accept War Guilt - most argued that Germany could not be solely held responsible
• Germans considered Allied demand for extensive reparations to be unreasonable
• Impostion of disarmament was unfair as Britain/France remained highly armed - seemed as if Germany had been unilaterally disarmed
• Germany’s treatment by Allies was viewed as undignified and unworthy of a great power - excluded from League of Nations but had to accept terms of the Covenant

Question 17

Describe the significance of the Treaty of Versailles

Answer 17

Economic consequences of reparations was concern - weaken the economy
Some argue Germany in stronger position politically in 1919 to 1914- but treaty considered more to blame for Weimars weakness because regarded as real cause of the country’s problems

Question 18

Describe the threats to the Weimar Republic on the extreme left?

1) KPD
2) Red Bavaria
3) German October

Answer 18

In 1920 USPD disbanded and members either joined KPD or SPD
KPD believed establishment of democracy fell long way short and wanted revolution to proceed on Marxist lines with one party communist state - many German communists encouraged by political unrest
KPD reasonable political force from 1919 to 1923
Red Bavaria - In wake of USPD leader Eisner assassinated in Bavaria, Bavarian Soviet Republic with Red Army of workers set up by Eugen Levine and proposed radical political & economy changes but after one month the Freikorps/army moved in and crushed the republic with 1000 deaths in May known as White Terror
In crisis of 1923 - KPD and SPD formed coalitions in regional governments but communists went further and made preparations for uprisings with Proletarian Hundreds. Stresemanns government foiled the plan for German October Revolution
Main reason for Red Threat failures were bad co-ordination, incapable of mounting unified attack, poor leadership, concessions and repression with the rebels considerably brutally repressed

Question 19

What was the ideologies displayed by the extreme right?

Answer 19

Anti-democracy = united by rejection of the Weimar system and its principles - aimed to destroy democratic constitution as seen as weak
Anti-Marxism = even more despised than democracy was fear of communism - seen as threat to traditional values and the ownership of property and wealth an when communism was established it reinforced communism was anti-German
Authoritarianism = extreme right favoured restoration of authoritarian dictatorial regime but no real consensus on what kind of government would be established
Nationalism = at core of extreme right but Germany's national pride was hurt by event of 1919 - nationalists reinforced stab in the back myth with the November Criminals - war lost by military defeat suffered by army but as result of betrayal by unpatriotic forces within Germany.  Included pacifists, socialists, democrats, Jews

Question 20

Describe the following extreme right organisations 
DNVP
Racist nationalism
Freikorps
Consul Organisation

Answer 20

DNVP - coalition of nationalist-minded old imperial conservative parties and included such groups as Fatherland Party and the Pan-German League
Racist Nationalism - emergence of racist nationalism was apparent before 1914 but effects of war and aftermath increased its attraction for many on right.
Freikorps - flourished in post war environment and attracted more brutal/ugly elements of militarism. As a result of demobilisation of armed forces - 200 paramilitary units around Germany by 1919. Employed by government in crucial role to suppress extreme left but anti republican an committed to restoring authoritarian rule
Consul Organisation - From 1920 Weimar government tried to control actions of Freikorps but new threat emerged in form of political assassination. There were 376 political murders - 22 left and 354 on right - Consul Organisation notorious gang because responsible for assassination of key republican politicians like Karl Gareis leader of USPD

Question 21

Describe the events of aftermath of the following two extreme right uprisings…

1) Kapp Putsch
2) Munich Beer Hall putsch

Answer 21

Kapp Putsch - When it was proposed to disband two brigades of the army - Wolfgang Kapp and General Luttwitz decided to exploit the situation and encouraged 12000 troops to march on Berlin and size main buildings of the capital unopposed. German Army didn’t provide resistance but didn’t join the Putsch either - Putsch collapsed as before leaving Berlin, SPD members had called for general strike which paralysed the capital and spread around the country - 4 days Kapp exerted no authority.
Aftermath - collapse could be major success as retained backing of the people and withstood major threat but, Kapp Putsch had taken place highlighting clear weakness in Weimar. Von Seeckt made chief of the army command even thought support was lukewarm and imposed strict discipline and recruited new troops and determined to uphold independence of the army - judiciary remained old political values and didn’t change - those involved never felt full rigour of the law in 1920 as Kapp died and Luttwitz granted early retirement

Munich Beer Hall putsch - government of Bavaria was under control of Von Kahr who blamed Germans problems on government in Berlin. By October 1923 Von Lossow had fallen under Von Kahr spell and begun to disobey orders so plotted with Hitler and Nazis to March on Berlin. But Kahr and Lossow abandoned plan fearing failure. 8 Nobember Kahr addressed large audience in Munich and Hitler/Nazis declared national revolution - under pressure Lossow and Kahr agreed with uprising. Seeckt used powers for armed forces to resist the putsch
Aftermath - Hitler sentenced to 5 years and Ludendorff acquitted on grounds that he there by accident

Question 22

Why did it become increasingly difficult for the new republic to function as a democracy?

Answer 22

Combined support for 3 main parties declined from 76.1% 1919 to 48% in 1920
Pro democratic parties performance declined and support for extreme parties increased
Democratic supporters struggled with practical problem of creating/maintaining workable coalition- Weimar had 6 governments from 1919 - 1923

Question 23

How did WW1 weaken the German economy?

Answer 23

1919 faced big economic problems

• loss of resources from territories like Saar, Alsace-Lorraine resulted in 16% decline in coal production, 13% decline in arable agricultural land, 48% loss in iron ore
• Cost of paying reparations
• Growing increase in prices - from 1914 to 1918, prices of basic good increased nearly four-fold
• Increase in national debt to 144,000 million marks by 1919 compared with 5000 million marks in 1914

Question 24

What were the causes of Great Inflation?

1) Long term
2) Medium term
3) Short term

Answer 24

1) Germany made no financial provision for long drawn out war. But despite increasing costs of war, Kaisers government decided against increases in taxation and borrowed massive sums by selling war bonds to the public - invest in government funds. Only 16% of war expenditure raised from taxation - 84% borrowed. War years even almost full employment, economy concentrated on military supplying so consumer goods began to push prices up
2) From 1919, Weimar increased taxation on wealth, profits and income but decided not to go as far as balancing the budget and adopt deficit financing in belief that’s people more money to spend so increase demand, overcome problems of demobilising troops, cover cost of public spending but allowed inflation to continue. Reparations only contributory factor to inflation - to pay Weimar printed large quantities of marks and sell them to obtain the stronger currencies so mark value declined and inflation rocketed
3) July 1922 German government made request for a holiday from making reparation payments - final stage of inflationary crisis kicked in. French government suspected German intentions and the Reparations Commission declared Germany to be in default so French/Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr to make Germany pay in kind - Government embarked on passive resistance urging workers to go on strike but government finances collapsed and Mark fell more

Question 25

What were the consequences of the Great Inflation on the following...
Peasants
Mittelstand
Industrial workers
Civil servants
Retired
Businessmen
Human Consequences

Answer 25

Peasants - coped well as food remained in demand and depended less on money for the provision of necessities as they were self-sufficient
Mittelstand - middle class included shopkeepers and craftsmen seemed to have reasonably good business as prepared to exploit demands of the market
Industrial Workers - real wages and standard of living improved until 1922 - chaos of 1923 meant trade unions unable to negotiate wage settlements and decline took place, fewer savings meant lost proportionally less than those with saved income. Unemployment did rise to 4.1% in 1923
Civil Servants - income suffered because depended on fixed salaries which fell in value and tended to gain if buying a property on a mortgage but many attracted to buying war bonds so lost out
Retired - elderly suffered badly as depended on fixed pensions and savings which lost value
Businessmen - did well as bought up property with worthless money and paid off mortgage - benefited as they made sales to foreign countries as rate of exchange was attractive
Human Consequences - decline in law and order and increase in crime, decline in morality, growth in suicides, increase in prejudice and find scapegoats like Jews

Question 26

How did Weimar survive the crisis of 1923 under Stresemann? Look at his achievements from the problems facing him

Answer 26

Appointment of Stresemann in 1923 as Chancellor resulted in emergence of politician prepared to take difficult decisions.
1) Called of Passive resistance in Ruhr and resumed payments
2) Governments expenditure was sharply cut in order to reduce the deficit - 700,000 public employees sacked
3) Introduction of new currency overseen by Schacht called the Rentenmark
4) Dawes Plan published in 1924 meant for first five years fixed the payments in accordance with Germany’s ability to pay
5) Extremists on left/right were defeated
Weimar survived due to anger directed as the French and Allies, workers didn’t suffer to same extent as 1930s and some businessmen did well out of inflation so support was fairly high for Weimar