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Anatomy & Physiology II > The Circulatory System: Blood > Flashcards

The Circulatory System: Blood Flashcards

0
Q

How many liters of blood are in an average adult?

A

5 liters, but can range from 4-6

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1
Q

Common Functions of Blood

A
  • Transport (O2, CO2, nutrients, waste, hormones, stem cells)
  • Protection (prevent spread of infection, WBCs destroy microorganisms and cancer cells, produce antibodies, platelets secrete factors for clotting etc)
  • Regulation (fluid distribution, pH, body temperature)
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2
Q

Blood Components

A
  • Formed elements (cells, platelets)

- Fluid elements of the matrix (plasma)

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3
Q

Formed Element Classifications

A
  • Erythrocytes
  • Platelets
  • Leukocytes
    • Granulocytes:
      • Neutrophils
      • Eosinophils
      • Basophils
    • Agranulocytes
      • Lymphocytes
      • Monocytes
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4
Q

Hematocrit

A

The percentage of total volume made up by the erythrocytes (usually 37-52%)

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5
Q

Components of Blood in a Centrifuge Sample (%)

A

Top to Bottom:

  • Plasma (47-63%)
  • WBCs and platelets (“Buffy coat,” 1% or less)
  • Erythrocytes (37-52%)
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6
Q

Plasma Components

A
  • Water
  • Three Categories of Proteins:
    1) Albumin
    - transports solutes
    - buffers pH of plasma
    - viscosity and osmolarity
    2) Globulins
    - alpha, beta, gamma
    - transport, clotting, immunity
    3) Fibrinogen
    - precursor of clotting fibrin
  • Nutrients
  • Electrolytes
  • Hormones
  • Nitrogenous wastes
  • Gases
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7
Q

5 Types of Leukocytes

A 
Granulocytes 
     - Neutrophils
     - Basophils
     - Eosinophils
Agranulocytes 
     - Lympocytes
     - Monocytes
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8
Q

Serum

A

When the blood clots and solids are removed, remaining fluid is serum

Serum is essentially plasma without the clotting protein fibrinogen

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9
Q

Origin of Plasma Proteins

A

The liver produces all plasma proteins but gamma globulin which are generated by plasma cells (connective tissue cells that are descending from B lymphocytes)

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10
Q

Viscosity

A

The resistance of a fluid to flow based in the cohesion of its particles

  • Blood viscosity is determined by the level of plasma proteins and formed elements
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11
Q

Osmolarity

A

The total molarity of dissolved particles that cannot pass through the blood vessel wall

  • If blood molarity is too high (with respect to tissue molarity), the bloodstream will retain too much water which will increase blood volume and blood pressure
  • If blood molarity is too low, the bloodstream will release too much water into the tissues, resulting in edema and low blood pressure
  • Osmoreceptors in the brain detect changes in osmolarity to govern the release of ADH and stimulate thirst
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12
Q

pH of Blood

A

7.35-7.45

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13
Q

Hemopoiesis

A
  • Tissues that produce blood cells are called hemopoietic tissues (mainly myeloid tissue aka red bone marrow, and lymphoid tissue such as the tonsils and thymus)
  • Hemopoietic stem cells (HSCs, aka pluripotent stem cells or PPSCs) in the bone marrow give rise to all formed elements
  • Most HSCs remain in the bone marrow but some go on to form colony-forming units (CFUs)
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14
Q

Internal Structure of Erythrocytes

A
  • During maturation, erythrocytes lose their organelles and this contain no nucleus or mitochondria and rely on anaerobic respiration (they transport oxygen and therefore must not consume it)
  • Cytoplasm contains hemoglobin
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15
Q

Lifespan of Erythrocytes

A

~120 days

- Are phagocytosed by macrophages in the spleen, liver, bone marrow

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16
Q

Structure of Hemoglobin

A
  • Four protein chains called globins: 2 alpha and 2 beta chains
  • Heme group containing ferrous ion (Fe++) that binds O2 to form oxyhemoglobin
  • The globin portion binds CO2 to form carboaminohemoglobin
  • Adult hemoglobin (HbA) and fetal hemoglobin (HbF) differ in structure; HbF had two gamma rather than best chains and binds oxygen with a higher affinity
17
Q

Erythropoiesis

A
  • Stimulated by hypoxia (low blood O2), the kidney and liver release erythropoietin (EPO)
18
Q

Primary and Seconary Polycythemia (Polycthemia Vera)

A
  • Excess RBCs
  • Primary is cancer of the erythropoietic line of the red bone marrow
  • Secondary is from all other causes
  • Higher blood volume, BP, viscosity
19
Q

Anemia

A
  • Very low RBCs or hemoglobin
  • Caused by inadequate erythropoiesis/hemoglobin, hemorrhagic anemia, hemolytic anemia
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
     - small, pale RBCs
Pernicious Anemia
     - deficiency of intrinsic factor to absorb B12
Aplastic Anemia
     - destruction of bone marrow
20
Q

Sickle-Cell Disease

A
  • A recessive allele modifies hemoglobin so the cells are tapered and agglutinate, blocking blood vessels and causing pain to oxygen-deprived areas
  • Heterozygous are trait carriers who exhibit limited symptoms and demonstrate resistance to malaria
21
Q

Agglutination Terms for Blood Types

A

Agglutinogens – Antigens

Agglutinins – Antibodies

22
Q

Universal Donor versus Recipient

A

AB = recipient (contains neither anti-A or -B agglutinins)

O = donor (contains both anti-A and -B)

23
Q

Rh Factor

A

Group of antigens: C, D, E (D is the most common)

  • Blood type is + or - based on presence or absence of D antigen
  • Blood does not contain anti-D antibodies but will develop them upon exposure to Rh+ blood
24
Q

Rh Factor and Pregnancy

A
  • Rh- mother may be exposed to baby’s Rh+ blood during birth and will produce anti-D antibodies
  • During a second Rh+ pregnancy, these antibodies can cross the placenta resulting in hemolysis
  • Known as erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of newborn
  • Can be combated by injecting mother beforehand with globulins that intercept Rh+ antigens before she produces antibodies
    • ex RhoGAM, passive immunization
25
Q

Leukocyte Order of Abundance

A

N > L > M > E > B

26
Q

Neutrophils

A
  • Bacterial infections
  • Nucleus consists of 2-5 lobes
  • Called polymorphonuclear Leukocytes (PMNs)
  • Reddish to violet granules
27
Q

Eosinophils

A
  • Allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, diseases of spleen and CNS
  • Bilobed nucleus
  • Rosy to orange granules
28
Q

Basophils

A
  • Secrete histamine and heparin
  • Abundant dark violet granules
  • Histamine widens blood vessels to accelerate the flow of blood to injured tissues and makes them more permeable to neutrophils and clotting proteins
  • Heparin inhibits blood clotting and promotes mobility of other WBCs
29
Q

Lymphocytes

A
  • Large nucleus with thin strip of cytoplasm
  • Large, medium, and small varieties
  • Medium and large typically in fibrous connective tissue, not usually circulating in blood
30
Q

Monocytes

A
  • Inflammation and viral infections
  • Largest WBC
  • Kidney- or U-shaped nucleus
  • Cytoplasm contains fine granules
  • Transform into macrophages in the tissue that destroy dead or dying host cells as well as foreign cells, pathogenic chemicals, etc
  • Macrophages are called Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) because they display antigen fragments to alert the immune system
31
Q

Leukopenia versus Leukocytosis

A

Leukopenia = Low WBC
- Lead, arsenic, mercury poisoning, radiation sickness, certain infectious diseases, glucocorticoids and certain anti-cancer drugs

Leukocytosis = High WBC
- Dehydration or emotional responses

32
Q

Leukopoiesis

A

HSCs differentiate into distinct CFUs:

  • Myeloblasts ultimately form the granulocytes
  • Monoblasts form monocytes
  • Lymphoblasts form lymphocytes
33
Q

Leukemia

A

Cancer of hemopoietic tissues - can be classified as myeloid or lymphoid, acute or chronic

  • Myeloid leukemia is marked by overproduction of granulocytes
  • Lymphoid leukemia overproduces monocytes and lymphocytes
  • Acute appears and progresses rapidly while chronic appears and progresses slowly
34
Q

Thrombopoiesis

A
  • Some HSCs have receptors for thrombopoietin released by the kidneys and liver and become megakaryoblasts
  • Megakaryoblasts become megakaryocytes with multilobed nuclei and multiple chromosome sets
  • Platelets are fragments of the megakaryocytes
35
Q

Hemostasis

A

= cessation of bleeding

  • Three mechanisms:
    1) Vascular spasm
    - Constriction of blood vessel, lasts until other two mechanisms can take over
    2) Platelet plug formation
    - Platelets detect exposed collagen fibers and form a platelet plug and undergo degranulation of serotonin, thromboxane, ADP
    3) Blood clotting
    - One of the most complex processes in the body
    - Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin to collect more fibrin, blood cells and platelets
36
Q

Platelet Granules Released in Platelet Plug Formation

A

Serotonin + Thromboxane = vasoconstriction and spasm

ADP + Thromboxane = plug formation

37
Q

Two Pathways for Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin

A

1) Extrinsic Mechanism - clotting factors released from source(s) other than blood - the damaged tissue (ex Thromboplastin)
2) Intrinsic Mechanism - clotting factors found in the blood itself

38
Q

Fibrinolysis

A
  • Dissolution of a clot

- Plasmin dissolves fibrin through a positive feedback loop

39
Q

Hemophilia

A
  • A blood clotting disorder where blood fails to clot due to lack of clotting factors
  • Pain and joint immobility can result from hematomas (masses of clotted blood in the tissues)
40
Q

Thrombosis

A
  • Abnormal clotting of blood in an unbroken blood vessel
  • A thrombus (clot) may cause blockages/break off to form an embolus that enters the bloodstream
  • If a vessel that supplies O2 to a vital tissue is blocked, infarction ( or tissue death) may result
  • ex Deep vein thrombosis pulmonary embolism
41
Q

Citrate or EDTA as Anticoagulants

A

Citrate and EDTA are salts that bind Ca++ so it cannot participate in blood clotting

Anatomy & Physiology II (4 decks)

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