The changing role and status of women UK Flashcards
THE RIGHT TO VOTE AND POLITICAL ADVANCEMENT
Political and economic changes 1918-29
Franchise
March 1918: The Representation of the People Act enfranchised women over the age of 30 if they were a member or married to a member of the local government register, a graduate voting in a university election or a property owner
Only educated women were franchised
43% of the electorate
Working-class women did not receive the vote until 1928
Employment opportunities
In 1914 200,000 women were employed in the metals and chemicals industries
By 1918 there were over 1 million
In main cordite factory at Gretna, 11,000 women worked to create explosives
The government had introduced a ‘dilution’ agreement with trade unions in 1914, meaning that skilled workers who went to fight in France could be replaced by semi-skilled labour, including women workers on two main conditions:
Employment only lasted as long as the war
New workers not able to profit from war and not be paid higher wages then men whose jobs they were filling
Seemed to herald a return to traditional ideas about gender
‘Women’s work’ (employment opportunities
In 1918, 1.25 million women were ‘in service’
This work was unpopular and most women who experienced it were keen to find other employment
Opportunities were limited because of prejudice, lack of educational opportunities for women and prevailing ideas about ‘woman’s work’
Educated women were employed to do clerical work - over 1 million employed as typists or clerks by 1921 and a further 300,000 10 years later
Working-class women could work in light manufacturing which was poorly paid
Two-thirds of all work done by working-class women was done from home - baking, brewing, sewing ‘piece work’, household tasks and caring for children
Middle-class women (employment opportunities)
Gradual improvement as universities began to accept women
Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 prevents barring from a career in law or the civil service on the basis of gender - suggest male attitudes were beginning to change
In 1931 there was 3,000 female practitioners
180,000 nurses
21 female architects out of 6,000
No women in civil services were posted overseas
Until 1944 female teachers had to leave the profession if they married
In 1931, 84% of female workforce was single, divorced or widowed
Middle-class married women were expected to stay at home
Women in politics
No more than 5% of MPS were women during interwar years
Peaked at 15 in 1931
The Labour Party, as the proponent of women’s enfranchisement and promoter of social reform, attracted more women than the other parties - 150,000 joined between 1918 and 1924
Many Labour activists felt women should stay at home
Only nine women served as labour MPs in the interwar period
Cast women in subservient roles - delivering leaflets, organising fundraising events
Women were encouraged to become MPs
More influential at local level
However, by 1930 less than 15% of elected local councillors were female
How did the total war affect women? (Women and the Second World War)
they engaged in a wide range of military and civilian roles between 1939-45
By 1944, 80,000 women worked on farms for Women’s Land Army
Munitions factories, aircraft construction, parachute packing and uniform manufacture required predominantly female workforce
Women’s Voluntary Service supported civil defence forces and offered shelter for bomb victims
Women had non-combat roles in all three of the auxiliary services
Women crypt-analysts and translators worked to break codes
small number of British women spies carried out wartime intelligence work
What were the practical benefits of the Second World War for women? (Women and the Second World War)
Many were better paid as a result of employment
Acquired new skills and confidence in abilities
Many reached levels of importance and seniority which were not available to them in civilian life
Overseas postings and relocation gave them new experiences and opportunities
Opportunity to work alongside men gave many a sense of participation and contribution
Economic advancement 1945-51
Government hoped there would be no social change
Government offered few inducements in terms of pay or working hours to encourage women to remain in the workplace
Women who remained in employment worked in fields reserved for women
86% of working women in 1951 were in industries such as nursing, teaching, waitressing, clerical work
The marriage bar ended for teaching in 1944, for the civil service in 1946 and for the Bank of England in 1949
Marriage bar gradually removed in 50s and 60s
However, attitudes of women recorded by Mass observation in 40s and 50s show many were ambivalent about working life
A 1948 study of 100 women in 3 locations found:
Widespread desire to end work after marriage
The need for extra income as main motivation for working
Most women didn’t define themselves by work/see it as important to their identity
Women who wanted to build a career for themselves were seen to be unusual
Seen to have failed to fulfil primary role of ‘home-maker’ and mother
Economic advancement 1951-79
50% of women retained their jobs by 1972
Until the late 1950s unequal pay was an established norm for women
women received 40% less money than male counterparts on average
In 1958 the civil service, education and NHS put in equal pay for employees but there was no government legislation on pay until Equal Pay Act of 1970
Economic advancement 1951-79
The Equal Pay Act 1970
1959 Labour party commitment to equal pay
In 1965 the TUC agreed to give ‘support for the principles of equality of treatment and opportunity for women workers in industry’
Wasn’t until 1970 pledges became law
Equal pay was a pre-requisite for join EEC
came into effect in 1975
Economic advancement 1951-79
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975
Equal Opportunities Commission (part of Act) established by labour party in 1975
Ensure that fair employment practices were observed and that women had legal protection against discrimination in education and employment
Established tribunals for workplace sexual harassment
Recognised everyday sexual discrimination
Women still faced prejudice in political life and workforce
People still believed their primary role was as wives and mothers
Work such be secondary for women
Worked only for ‘pin-money’
Second-wave feminism developed due to failure of political inequality
Political advancement 1945-79
Women did not progress significantly
Number of MPs stayed constant between 20-30 with dips in 1951 and 1979 despite upward trend of candidates
Women faced prejudice in politics
Widespread belief women were too busy with domestic duties to fulfil role of MP
Women in local constituencies expected to fulfil same subsidiary roles as before the war
Rarely selected for cabinet posts
CHANGES IN FAMILY LIFE AND THE QUEST FOR PERSONAL FREEDOMS 1918-79
Family life and personal freedoms 1918-39
Overview
Women’s role and status remained largely unchanged
Women were homemakers
Husband was head of the house
Few gains for women including; changes to divorce, birth control and freer self expression
Access was generally experienced by middle-class with little positive change for working-class women
Family life and personal freedoms 1918-39
Divorce
Holy Deadlock
In 1934 lawyer A.P Herbert pointed out absurdities in divorce law in his novel Holy Deadlock these were:
An unhappily married couple could not obtain a divorce based on mutual consent; there had to be instances of adultery or violence
This meant couples had to perjure in court to obtain a divorce.
If both spouses had been unfaithful the court could refuse to give them a divorce
Attempt to prove adultery was farcical; private detectives or paying females to meet errant husbands to be photographed in compromising positions
Family life and personal freedoms 1918-39
Divorce
1937 Matrimonial Causes Act
Hebert became independent MP to campaign for divorce law reform and succeed
Act allowed for divorce if either partner had been unfaithful, as well as for desertion after three years
