The causes of the French Revolution from 1774 and the events of 1789

Question 1

Absolute monarchy

Answer 1

A kingdom where the hereditary monarch rules without the requirement to consult an elected parliament is an absolute monarchy. Royal ministers are not responsible to anyone but the monarch. The right to rule belongs entirely to the monarch and there are few limits to his or her power.

Question 2

The First Estate

Answer 2

Clergy made up 0.5% of the population but owned 10% of the land (the largest single land owner in France). The Church controlled almost all education, most of the hospitals and looked after the relief of the poor. The clergy where exempt from direct taxation, although they had an income of approximately 100 million livres a year, instead they paid the ‘don gratituit’ instead (approximately 5% of their income). They received tithes from their parishioners, in Brittany this was a quarter of all crops produced.

Question 3

The Second Estate

Answer 3

Only 140,000 nobles out of a population of over 28 million yet they owned between a quarter and a third of French land. They held most of the main positions in the State, including government ministers, intendants, and upper ranks in the army. The nobles were entirely exempt from direct taxation until 1695, they later had to pay some taxes, but were still exempt from la gabelle and the taille (land tax). They were also tried in their own courts, exempt from military service and received a variety of feudal dues. Venal offices to become nobility.

Question 4

Why the First Estate were so unpopular?

Answer 4

Received excessive incomes - the Archbishop of Stasbourg received 400,000 livres annually
Plurality - bishops of more than one diocese, some of which they never visited (absenteeism). Many ordinary people considered the bishops were more interested in wealth than in the religious and spiritual needs of the people.

Question 5

The Third Estate

Answer 5

Everyone else. Included the bourgeoisie and the peasants. The bourgeoisie included merchants, traders, financiers, landowners, lawyers, and civil servants. There was a threefold increase in the number of bourgeoisie over the course of the eighteenth century to 2.3 million. The bourgeoisie felt that its power and wealth should in some way be reflected in the political system as it bore such a substantial part of the tax revenue paid to the Crown. This simmering resentment was a long term cause of the Revolution.

The peasants made up 85% of the population. Half of whom were sharecroppers who did not own their land but farmed it and gave half of their crops to the landlords instead of rent. In some areas serfdom (where the people were the property of the landowner) persisted.

Question 6

The peasants resentment and taxes to the state.

Answer 6

Had to pay a tithe to the Church, feudal dues to their lord (up to 33% of the harvest). Also had to pay the taille and the gabelle to the state, both of which increased enormously between 1749 and 1783 to pay for the wars France was involved in, and these taxes took between 5 and 10% of peasants income. The heaviest burden they had to pay was rent to their landlords which also increased hugely during the second half of the eighteenth century.

Question 7

The sans-culottes

Answer 7

Also made up part of the third estate. Their standards of living fell during the eighteenth century as prices had risen, on average, by 65% between 1726 and 1789, but wages by only 22%.

Question 8

Limitations of power of the king

Answer 8

Assembly of the Clergy - had rights and privileges guaranteed by law which the King could not interfere with
The King had to consult his council of ministers and advisers to make laws e.g. the Controller-General who was in charge of royal finances. Each minister dealt with the King on an individual basis, this created the problem of ministers and court factions working against eachother rather than co-operating.
Rule in the provinces - France had no single representative body that could pass laws covering the whole country. All royal legislation had to be ratified by one of thirteen regional parlements. France was a patchwork of different legal systems, different taxes and different rules on who paid them.

Question 9

Tax farming

Answer 9

The Farmers-General paid an agreed sum to the Crown and collected taxes on the King’s behalf, keeping any surplus beyond their agreement as profit.

Question 10

Venality

Answer 10

Many of the taxes were collected by officials who, under a system known as venality, had brought the right to hold their positions, so they could not, therefore, be dismissed. Corruption and wastage were vast, and resulted in the crown not receiving an adequate income, while the taxpayers knew that much of the tax they paid never reached the treasury.

Question 11

Reaction to attempts to abolish trade guilds and the corvee (Turgot)

Answer 11

Turgot appointed Controller-General. In his Six Edicts, he proposed abolishing price controls, reducing the restrictions on trade by guilds and promoting enterprise. He also proposed economies in spending and a new property tax. He aimed to replace the forced labour on the roads which fell heavily on the Third Estate - the corvee - with a new system of road maintenance. But the ending of price controls led to widespread unrest and bread rioting. Privilege interests turned against him and his enemies at court, including Queen Marie Antionette, and protest from the parlements, so Louis, for the sake of harmony, withdrew his support and Turgot left office in 1776.

Question 12

Necker and the system of loans to finance war

e.g. the Seven Years War had cost 1.3 billion livres

Answer 12

Because he was a foreigner and protestant he could not be made Controller, so he was made Director General of Finances in 1777. Opposed to Turgot’s free trade he saw the key to public finance as establishing confidence among lenders and so arranged for royal accounts to be published in 1781 (the Compte Rendu). He aimed to increase confidence in the royal finances so the crown did not have to pay so heavily for credit. He borrowed over 500 million livres. He also aimed to increase the Crown’s share of farmed out taxation and planned to reduce the 70,000 so called ‘venal offices’, which could be bought and sold by individuals, taking control away from the Government.

He was only able to make a relatively small increase in royal income but predicted a surplus based on unrealistic spending figures. By 1786, spending was 633 million livres and income just 472 million livres. The greatest expenditure was 259 million in debt interest. The court, were angry for publishing details of its spending on pensions and the royal household, and resigned in 1781.

War - between 1740 and 1783 France was at war for 20 years. The American War of Independence (1778-1783) cost France 1066 million livres which Necker tried to finance the war by raising loans.

Question 13

Calonne - the resumption of selling offices and the reforms of tax system

Answer 13

Appointed in 1783.

Attempted to cut 112m livres deficit (verge of bankruptcy) with the sale of Church land (biens nationeux), universal land tax and recoined gold coinage.

Calonne reestablished the practice of selling offices (many of which Necker had abolished) undoing much of Necker’s work.

In 1786 loans were drying up so Calonne attempted tax reform, made up of three proposals:

1. Replace the capitation and vingtieme on landed property with a single land tax. There were to be no exemptions; everyone including the nobles, the clergy and the pay d’etas would pay, regardless of whether the land was used for luxury purposes or crops.
2. Free trade to increase prosperity be ending internal customs - abandoning controls on the grain trade and internal customs barriers, and abandon the corvee
3. Elected local assemblies to assess and administer the tax

Louis called the Assembly of Notables who he expected to rubberstamp the reform package, however, they refused as they represented the privileged classes and had the most to lose from them (also Compte Rendu). They demanded something in return for accepting the new taxation - representation. There were demands for extending local assemblies and for calling the old parliament - the Estates General. The aristocrats, some of whom were influenced by the Enlightenment, saw themselves as the defenders of liberty against the tyranny of ministers. The Assembly ended in stalemate and Calonne was dismissed in 1788.

Question 14

Impact of these finance ministers

Answer 14

Big Impact
Idea that summoning the Estates-General could help solve the financial problems was significant in the decline of the monarchy.
Showed the crown failed to support reforming ministers; the enduring hold that privilege had at all levels - guilds, nobles, office holders; and the disastrous consequences of war.
The perceived need to do something drastic about the debt was much more significant than the debt itself, and therefore had a significant impact e.g. Calonne - Assembly of the Notables; Necker created problems by disguising the true extent of the debt, and then encouraged the early calling of the Estates General, and Turgot underestimated the furious opposition to free trade in grain. Louis was also to blame for his failure to support these ministers.

Little Impact
It had not stopped government functioning and despite being heavily in debt, the Monarchy had done well in the war of 1778-1783.
The government deficit had not stopped economic progress or made the monarch personally unpopular.

Question 15

The Enlightenment - Diderot

Answer 15

Published an ‘Encyclopedia’ which covered everything from philosophical ideas like ‘reason’ to agricultural techniques for improving crop yield. There was an urge to question old and outdated beliefs and superstitions that encouraged ‘backwardness’. In itself, the Encyclopedia and its ideals were not revolutionary but they inspired a critical attitude as people began to challenge accepted beliefs and promote progress.

Question 16

The Enlightenment - Locke

Answer 16

Locke had a view that there were natural rights that all humans were born with, ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’. In fact, the American Declaration of Independence was influenced by Locke. The idea that people had a right t be free and that governments could never take away that right was explosive. If governments were dictatorial or oppressive they had broken the contract between rulers and ruled, so could be overthrown legitimately.

Question 17

The Enlightenment - Montesquieu

Answer 17

Believed power should be shared and not exercised by an absolute monarch with total power (despotism). He praised the English model where the King, Parliament and Courts controlled each other and prevented the monopoly and abuse of power. He believed the nobility and the Church should be the institutions which shared the power and provided the checks in France. Many aristocrats saw themselves as enlightened guardians of liberty and a balance against too much power being wielded by the crown.

Question 18

The Enlightenment - Rosseau

Answer 18

More radical, he questioned why governments should be obeyed at all. His answer to the question ‘Man was born free, but is everywhere in chains?’ is that there ought to exist a social contract that should ensure that the rulers rule in the interests of the people they rule. This contract should guarantee freedom to every individual through their share in the ‘General Will’, the only legitimate form of sovereignty. This did not exist in any form of government at the time.

He also had a strong idea that ‘the people’ lived a purer life than the rich and had an innate wisdom. This was to be a powerful revolutionary idea.

Question 19

The Enlightenment - Voltaire

Answer 19

A critic of the Church and an advocate of civil liberty, his plays, letters and writings were famous across Europe. Although he believed in absolute monarchy he also believed in tolerance, and that the people would be given freedom by a philosopher king who would rule in their interests and defeat the selfishness of the privileged classes.

Question 20

Did the enlightenment have an impact?

Answer 20

Mainly influenced the wealthy: enlightenment ideals were spread through salons, whereby an aristocratic hostess would invite nobles and bourgeoisie to discuss art, literature and politics. The poorer people in society (peasants and serfs) are illiterate, and therefore would not even be able to read these ideas. The ideas of the Enlightenment are big and intangible, the poorest in society are more likely to be driven by tangible causes like hunger.

But it changed the whole vocabulary of politics, there was now talk of ‘national sovereignty’, ‘rights of man’, constitutions and constitutional monarchy in which power would be shared.

Question 21

The impact of the American Revolution and the War of Independence

Answer 21

The Americans had constructed a constitution along the lines of those suggested by Montesquieu, in which powers were separated. Their declaration of independence in 1776 had spoken of natural rights. Freed from the bonds of church, aristocracy and kings, they had a established a regime with a social contract, and they had a great leader (George Washington). The ideas of the Enlightenment, so much discussed in France appeared to have found practical expression in America. The struggle against unfair taxation and demands for representation to discuss taxation struck a chord with many in France.

The key ideas that the colonists fought for became key ideas in France too:
No taxation without representation
The American Declaration of Independence stated ‘all men are created equal’
The idea of natural rights - that all men are endowed by their creator with the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness
Religious equality and toleration
The right to rebel against an unjust and tyrannical monarchical rule.

Frenchmen had fought for freedom in America without having freedom at home.
Also the war cost 1.3 million livres, which added to the financial problems of the monarchy and meant reform was necessary but impossible without calling the Estates General

Question 22

Discontent among the middle class (bourgeoisie)

Answer 22

The selling of offices and the system of tax farming were symbols for many of a wider corruption. And the customs posts around Paris and other cities were a visible sign of barriers to trade. A more numerous and politically-aware middle class found the excessive privileges of the nobles and higher clergy increasingly unbearable and objected to the social controls and censorship imposed by both Church and State.

Parish priests also complained they were kept poor by the tithes being taken by the wealthy and noble archbishops, bishops and abbots. They also pointed to the absenteeism and pluralism in the Church, as they failed to attend to the spiritual needs of the people, even neglecting to visit their parishes.

Question 23

Urban discontent

Answer 23

Only a fifth of the French population lived in cities. Workers were strictly controlled. They had to enroll on registers kept by the masters and were required to own a workbook (livret) recording their employment. They were subject to police raids to round up and expel those without papers. The traditional authority of the Church was weakened by rapid urban growth because the level of control the rural clergy had over their congregations was much greater than the control that could be exercised by the clergy in crowded cities. Rising food prices were problematic. However, there was a greater political and social awareness, and among the city populations as a whole, there was greater literacy; the number of books owned by wage earners trebled during the course of the 18th century.

Question 24

Economic problems from 1787 - urban

Answer 24

In Paris, the lower-class districts (faubourgs) had been made part of the old inner city by the construction of new city walls, with custom posts and gates built by the General Tax Farm, between 1785 and 1787. This made the price of the large amount of food coming into the city higher and caused considerable resentment.
Series of bad harvests 1788-1789
Unemployment rose to 80,000 in Paris and there was a slump in textiles, which hit cities nationwide. At least partially due to the Eden treaty of 1786, which allowed British goods, including textiles, at reduced rates of import duties.
Parisian workers were spending 88% of their wages on bread in 1789.
Crowds ransacked food warehouses in Marseilles in March 1789, and there were food riots in a number of urban centres. Orleans saw riots against shortages and food prices in April 1789, and in May 1789 there were attacks on tax offices in Limoux. Food prices reached their peak in July 1789 and this coincided with the attack on the Bastille.

Question 25

Rural discontent

Answer 25

23 million peasants in France, but there were only about a third of peasants who owned their own land - mostly smaller farms in areas of poorer soil. Bad harvests led to frequent food riots. Rural discontent was also shown by the explosion of violence which met attempts, by Turgot, to end controlled food prices. There was also increasing grievances about the level of taxation and noble landlords encroaching on common rights. In the winter of 1788-1789 there were many instances of peasants refusing to pay taxes and dues in the north-east, Franche Comte and the Paris area. Some peasants in Aix seized back their grain that had been given to the landlord as part of the payments for rents and dues. Peasant complaints in the cahiers focused, almost without exception, on resentment about State taxes and feudal dues.

Question 26

Were social and economic discontents enough?

Answer 26

No, there had to be political developments that would weaken the authority of the crown and open up the chance for revolutionary change.

Question 27

Enlightenment summary - general

Answer 27

They were in favour of liberty, more so than equality but wanted equality before the law. The main objects of their attacks were the church and despotic government. They were not trying to undermine the King, but had developed the idea that government was based on a ’contract’ between the king and his subjects, with obligations on both sides. They condemned the Catholic Church because it was wealthy, corrupt and intolerant, so they took up Voltaire’s cry of ‘crush the infamous’ – meaning the Church.

Question 28

Qualities of Louis as king of France

Answer 28

Despot – lettre de cachet
Divine Right – a political and social doctrine that was commonly held in Europe, only God had the power to judge a king and any attempt to remove a king would be sacrilegious
Intransigent
Absolute monarchy requires a strong figure with a dominant personality. Louis was rather weak and indecisive, and lacked the strength of character to combat the powerful factions in his court, or give the necessary support to reforming ministers (e.g. when the Assembly of the Notables rejected his reform plans). The summoning of the Estates-General was seen as a sign of desperation, and he again failed to provide leadership. He was also reliant on his wife, Marie Antoinette, who Mirabeau described as ‘the only man in the family’.
Married Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the Austrian Empress, who was portrayed as the ‘Austrian whore’. As the government’s debt grew, the Queen’s fondness for gambling, expensive construction projects, and extravagance (she purchased a pair of diamond bracelets for 400,000 livres in 1776) meant she was seen as widely out of touch with ordinary people. It was believed by many revolutionaries that she influenced the King so he avoided granting them concessions.
Later tried to leave France, and armoire de fer.

Question 29

France’s poor financial situation

Answer 29

In 1788, 318 million livres was being spent on debt interest and it was anticipated that for 1789, receipts (revenue?) would amount to 325 million livres, 62% of which would be spent on interest payments on the deficit.

Question 30

The monarchy was in theory absolute, but there were some signs that the monarchy power was weakening (particularly due to Louis XV)

Answer 30

Absolute - he chose and dismissed ministers at will. Royal edicts dictated policy, both foreign and domestic, and the King believed in Divine right.

But the absolutism of the monarchy was weakening
Religious disputes during the reign of Louis XV had undermined the religious authority of the crown.
By his immoral lifestyle, Louis XV seemed to call into question whether in any sense the monarch was linked to God

Question 31

The Parlements - a limit on the power of the monarchy

Answer 31

13 law courts presided over by aristocratic judges (not elected). They were needed by tradition, to register royal edicts and although they could be overruled by a royal ceremony called the ‘lit de justice’ and the judges could be arrested and exiled, they acted as a brake on royal power.

Question 32

Why did Louis call the Assembly of the Notables?

Answer 32

They had last been called in 1626. He was able to pass reforms himself without their approval, but he was weak and didn’t want to face public opposition for his reforms.

Question 33

Lead up to the Estates General

Answer 33

The parlement opposed Brienne’s reforms arguing that they increased royal power too much, and they became popular heroes. The king responded angrily, by exiling the Paris magistrates to the provincial town of Troyes in 1787. However, Louis still needed to be seen as financially credit worthy so was advised to be moderate, causing Louis to end the exile. The parlement met the King at a Seance Royale but the King simply declared the reforms registered. His own cousin rejected and was arrested. The Government now announced a plan to strip the Parlement of its right to register edicts, and the leading magistrates were arrested. This provoked a storm of resistance, including the ‘Day of Tiles’ after the exile of the Parlement of Grenoble. The government could not control the rioting and on 8 August 1788 it was announced the Estates-General would be summoned. However, it was clear that they were surrendering and weak rather than actively trying to involve the nation in reforms.

Question 34

Method of voting

Answer 34

The parlements wanted the Estates General to take the form it had in 1614, and therefore be dominated by the two privileged orders, which provoked protest. Whilst Louis doubled the representation of the Third Estate, the method of voting (by head or by order) was not settled.

Question 35

Electing the deputies

Answer 35

Initial assemblies voted for other assemblies who voted for the actual deputies. Any man who was over the age of 25, on the tax rolls, but who was not a servant, an actor or bankrupt, could take part in the preliminary hearings.

Question 36

Cahiers

Answer 36

The cahiers were a list of grievances and suggestions produced by each estate. In urban areas, the poorest did not qualify to participate, but there were large numbers of small masters who submitted grievances alongside richer and better-educated middle classes, meaning for the first-time millions of people were able to participate in a political process.

Submitted in the context of a period of economic struggle and a great hope for future change, fuelled by the extended political crisis of 1787-1788 and the great public interest in the suppression of the parlements.

The 1st Estate demanded Catholicism remained untouched (anti-protestant) but wanted to end the practice of Bishops holding more than one diocese (district). They also wanted it to be possible for those who were not noble to be able to become bishops. In return for these requests, they were willing to give up the financial privileges of the church.

The 2nd Estate were quite liberal. 89% of the 2nd Estate were prepared to give up their financial privileges, instead they argued for a system of meritocracy where those who work harder get more. They also attacked the government for despotism and inefficiency, particularly the tax system and tax farming, and wanted to take a leading part in reforming abuses.

The 3rd Estate argued for fairer taxation, payments and dues, and more consultation regarding government decisions.

All cahiers emphasised the need for regular meetings of the Estates-General, no taxation without consent, freedom for the press and the abolition of lettres de cachet. However, a conflict between the 3 estates was caused as they had differing opinions on whether they should vote by head or by order.
However, at this stage the tone was not revolutionary, there was no call for the ending of the monarchy.

Question 37

Revellion riots (27 April 1789)

Answer 37

The riots have been described as both the first great popular demonstration of the revolution in Paris, and the last of the ancien regime. A rumour spread that the owner (Réveillon) was going to cut wages which sparked the riots as many were already struggling to cope with high taxes and high bread prices. 25 died due to the riots and Réveillon’s factory and home were destroyed.

Question 38

5th May 1789: Estates-General opened (Versailles)

Answer 38

This was the first time the Estates-General had been called since 1614. It aimed to represent each of the estates: the 1st Estate was mainly represented by parish priests (75% were lower clergy) and just 51/291 deputies were bishops, as the government had deliberately restricted representation from the wealthy clergy in the hope of getting tax reforms passed; the 2nd Estate was mainly nobles and conservatives, but 90/282 were liberal, and the 3rd Estates 604 deputies were made up of 43% venal office holders (rich), 35% lawyers and only 13% from industry, as well as a scattering of ‘intellectuals’ such as Sieyes and Mirabeau who preferred to represent the 3rd Estate despite their status. There were no peasants at the Estates-General, meaning the poorest of the poor were still not being represented.

There was high expectation surrounding the Estates-General as the royal announcement of the Estates-General had promised, “not only that they (the Estates) might give their advice on everything we shall ask them to discuss, but also that they may tell us the wishes and grievances of our people so that every kind of abuse will be reformed.” This is further highlighted in the Réveillon riots when there were cries of “long live the king” and “long live M. Necker” as they were aware of the fact the Estates-General was due to meet a week later. However, when they arrived nothing had been agreed to present to the deputies, and the first seven weeks were wasted arguing about the appropriate voting procedure – by head or by order?

Question 39

17th June 1789: National Assembly proclaimed

Answer 39

The King was pressured by the majority in the first and second estates for separate meetings. The wealthy, more politically experienced Third Estate deputies refused to accept this.

When the third estate arrived, they would have most likely followed the King if some reform was proposed as they were lacking experience and clear leadership, however nothing was done and people began to lose patience. On the 17th of June, the third estate declared it was the ‘National Assembly’ since it represented most of the nation.

“The National Assembly is the only title appropriate to the assembly as things are because the members have come at the wishes of practically the whole nation”

The National Assembly would assume control over its own affairs and decide taxation. On the 19th of June, the Clergy (made up of mainly parish priests) voted to join them, breaking the deadlock and posing a direct challenge to the king.

Question 40

20th June 1789: Tennis court oath

Answer 40

The King, aware of the fact he was losing control of the situation and in an attempt to reassert his authority accepted Necker’s suggestion of calling a séance royale (Royal Session), attended by all 3 estates at which he would propose a series of reforms. However, when the third estate arrived the hall had been closed to prepare for the royal session and it was guarded by royal guards, which fuelled the fear that the king was preparing to use armed forces against them.

They instead met on an indoor tennis court nearby and took the following oath:
“all members of this assembly shall here and now take a solemn oath never to abandon the assembly and to go on meeting wherever it has to until the constitution of the realm is set up.”

Question 41

The response of the crown to the Tennis Court Oath

Answer 41

On the 23rd June 1789, Louis declared the previous decisions taken by the deputies of the 3rd Estate on the 17th June (the creation of the National Assembly) null and void and ordered the deputies to disperse and meet in their separate assemblies. The nobles and clergy followed the king out of the hall, but the National Assembly refused to go.

By the 27th June Louis gave way. He reversed his decision of the 23rd of June and ordered the nobles and clergy to join the 3rd Estate and vote by head. This was at least partially due to the fact in the meantime on 24th June, 151 deputies of the clergy joined the 3rd Estate. On 25th June, 47 nobles including a royal prince, the Duc d’Orleans did the same. Popular demonstrations broke out in Paris and elsewhere in favour of the National Assembly and rumours spread of plots to withhold grain, destroy the National Assembly and starve Paris.

Question 42

Louis ordered mobilisation of troops, particularly around Paris

Answer 42

22nd June – Louis orders troops to be moved to Paris and Versailles to ‘preserve order’. Many of these troops were elite units of the army, the French Guard, who Louis believed were loyal to the Crown.
26th June – 4,800 extra troops summoned
1st July – a further 11,500 troops summoned
By the 4th of July, there were just under 30,000 soldiers stationed around Paris, and rumours began to spread that Louis planned to disperse the assembly by force.

Question 43

Significance of the Tennis court oath

Answer 43

Important
Committed the National Assembly to making a constitution
Showed the determination to make permanent changes
Caught the public imagination
Led to the King giving way and permitting the three estates to meet together, meaning there were virtually two authorities - the King (power from divine right) and the National Assembly (who claimed authority from the popular vote)
The Estates General was originally meant to just be a tool to help the King pass reforms

Not important
They had already declared they were a National Assembly on the 17th of June
The King did not see the significance, he said ‘it’s only a name’

Question 44

The lead up to the storming of the Bastille

Answer 44

By the 4th of July, there were just under 30,000 soldiers stationed around Paris, and rumours began to spread that Louis planned to disperse the assembly by force.

10th July 1789: The electors of Paris proposed forming a citizen’s militia that had the dual purpose of defending the properties of the wealthy from the attacks of the menu people ordinary people living in towns) and to defend Paris against any possible threat by royal troops and the King. They wanted the militia to be predominantly bourgeois, with the sans-culottes excluded from its ranks.

11th July 1789: Necker sacked (ordered to return to Switzerland) and replaced by the conservative Baron de Breteuil.

12th July 1789: News of Necker being sacked reaches Paris – popular movement demonstrations
Necker was seen as the only minister who would be able to tackle the financial crisis and was at the height of his popularity. News of his dismissal, and the appearance of German cavalry troops to control disorder in the streets of Paris, led to panic and a conviction that Louis XVI was about to dissolve the assembly by force. Many flocked to the Palais-Royal, which had become the unofficial headquarters of the popular movement as thousands of Parisians gathered frequently to hear revolutionary speakers, such as Desmoulins, speak. Speakers at the Palais-Royal encouraged the Parisians to take up arms so the poorer citizens of Paris began raiding gun shops and swordsmiths in an attempt to arm themselves. There was an attack on the customs posts around the city (where the duties were collected on food and other goods entering Paris), and 40 out of the 54 posts were destroyed. Food stores and prisons were also attacked and the monastery of Saint-Lazare was taken over. Louis was informed that he could no longer rely on some of the Gardes-francaises as they began to listen to the speakers at the Palais-Royal and took no action in the face of mounting disorder.

Question 45

Was the storming of the Bastille significant?

Answer 45

Significant
Ended Marie Antoinette and the King’s brother’s hopes of re-imposition of royal authority by force
King’s response was what made the Bastille significant - he surrendered to pressure. He was told he could no longer count on the loyalty of his troops so he recalled them and told the Assembly he would reinstate Necker. On 17 July, he recognised the new Paris Commune, the National Guard, and the National Assembly, and placed on his head the revolutionary cockade.
Showed the power of the Paris crowds and the unreliability of the King’s forces
Set the precedent for the influence of the mob and the ‘journees’ which would dominate the next decade
It also showed the aristocrats that there was a true revolution and led to many of them fleeing France

Not significant
The Bastille itself was not a place of significance - it held only a handful of prisoners and it was not a major military base, so its occupation by the crowds in itslef meant little.

Question 46

Storming of the Bastille

Answer 46

14th July 1789: Storming of the Bastille 
The Bastille was located on the edge of the working-class district (the Faubourg Saint-Antoine) and was seen as a symbol for the hated ancient regime. On the 14th of July, many ordinary Parisian demonstrators were drawn to Les Invalides, a retirement home for soldiers, which also acted as a weapon store, in their search for weapons. The crowd of 8000 seized 28,000 muskets and 20 canons, but they did not have enough gunpowder or cartridges to use them. Rumours spread that gunpowder and cartridges were likely to be stored in the Bastille, and so the demonstrators accompanied by some of the citizens’ militia (later the National Guard), and some of the Gardes-francaises (5 out of 6 battalions of whom had deserted the King). The King could no longer count on the Gardes-francaises as they had begun to be influenced by the speakers at the Palais-Royal, and the King was informed that he could no longer rely on the other 5000 troops nearby either, so instead of stopping the demonstrations they were removed from the streets of the Paris to the Champ de Mars, a wide-open area south of the River Seine, where they did nothing.

de Launay, the Bastille’s governor, denied the crowd entry and refused to hand over any gunpowder. A group managed to enter the inner courtyard but de Launay ordered his troops open fire on them and 98 were killed. The Gardes-francaises used the canons taken from Les Invalides to kill the defenders of the Bastille, and de Launay was forced to surrender. He was then murdered and decapitated, his head paraded on a pole throughout the streets of Paris.

Question 47

Establishment of the Paris Commune

Answer 47

The popular demonstrations alarmed the wealthier citizens, who were worried about the safety and security of their property, as well as the possibility of an impending attack from the King. The Parisian electors (representatives of the 60 electoral districts that had chosen the deputies to the Estates-General) held an emergency meeting at the Hotel de Ville (town hall), where they voted to set up a committee, known as the commune, to run the city, to regain control of the situation. This Commune would be at the forefront of the clash between the Parisian’s and the King, and Sylvain Bailly was elected the mayor of the Paris to carry out the Commune’s policies.

Question 48

The Great Fear (la Grande Peur) - 20th July – 6th August 1789

Answer 48

Peasant risings had been occurring since early 1789, following a poor harvest in 1788. They were suffering due to the rise in bread prices and the depression in the textile industry, and the news of the breakdown of the authority in Paris provoked a much more widespread series of attacks. The main features of rural protest were:
• Grain stores were looted
• Chateaux were attacked and frequently burnt
• Documents known as ‘terriers’, which listed peasant obligations, were seized and destroyed
• Attacks on tax offices
However, these peasant risings only became the Great Fear when a rumour spread that bands of brigands and mercenaries, in the pay of the aristocracy, were going to destroy the harvest and kill reformers in order to enforce discipline. In fact, the supporters of the counter-revolution at the court had fled by 20 July when this panic began, and when these brigands did not appear, the peasants turned their anger against the landlords, and armed bodies of peasants roamed the countryside. This development frightened the assembly, where the mainly bourgeois and liberal noble deputies grew concerned for their own property. The Great Fear spread through most of France aside from Brittany, Alsace and the Basque region, which were unaffected.

Question 49

Was the Great Fear significant?

Answer 49

Significant 
Significant in terms of attacks on traditional authorities generally - in the cities, the traditional rulers were ousted by new rulers who were backed by middle-class militias modelled on the lines of the Paris National Guard. The countryside attacked the elements of authority they most resented - taxes and dues. 
The Great Fear showed that revolutionary change had spread beyond Paris.
It marked the breakdown of government in many areas and it led to the official end of the most significant of the social inequalities of the Ancien Regime - feudalism. In direct response to the attacks the Assembly held a discussion on 4 June in which they decided to end feudalism and renounce feudal dues, as well as the tithes paid to the church, privileges enjoyed by certain municipal authorities and provinces, and the sale of offices. This was done through laws from 5-11 August (some of the August decrees).

Not significant
Whilst it showed a breakdown of authority at the top it didn’t mean the peasants were anxious for political change. The cahiers had expressed their dislike of dues and payments, and in an especially hard time of high prices and shortages, they had taken direct action. However, as later events were to show, politically, many peasants were not interested in regime change or many of the ideas of the urban revolutionaries, such as changes in religion. As a revolutionary act, the Great Fear was limited.

Question 50

August Decrees

Answer 50

On the 3rd of August, the leaders of the patriot party (a loose group of progressive reformers, mainly nobles and bourgeoisie, who wanted changes to the political structure – a reduction in royal power in order to enhance their own positions), in response to the Great Fear drew up a plan for the liberal nobles to propose the dismantling of the feudal system.

The changes proposed went far beyond the demands of the cahiers. The main ones were:
• Tithes payable to the church were abolished.
• Venality was abolished.
• All financial and tax privileges relating to land or persons were abolished.
• Special privileges (including tax exemption) for provinces, principalities, pays, cantons (an administrative subdivision of a department), towns and villages were abolished.
• All citizens without distinction of birth were eligible for all offices, whether ecclesiastical, civil, or military.

The ancien regime had come to an end and a new system of meritocracy was in its place. Although there was still a great deal to be done, a process which would in fact take 2 years to complete, the August Decrees marked the end of noble power and the privilege of birth by establishing a society based on civil equality. Duquesnoy, one of the deputies exclaimed “What a nation! What glory! What honour to be French!”

However in the long term, this did not end problems in the countryside: contractual dues were not ended. Thus, sharecropping continued and nobles were allowed to compensate for the loss of some rights by increasing rents. There was no question of abolishing property rights or making everyone equal.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was largely drawn up by Lafayette and it laid down the principles upon which the new constitution of France was to be based. It began “Men are born free and remain free and equal in their rights” and guaranteed freedom of expression – speech and publication, opinion, worship, and to own property as well as stating the main rights of man are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression and that power (sovereignty) rests with the people. It also said taxation was to be borne by all in proportion to their means, and that careers and offices should be open to all according to their talent – the principle of meritocracy. Finally, it stressed the importance of an elected assembly to express the view or ‘general will’ of the people and the need for laws to protect men’s freedom.

Question 51

1st October 1789: Royal soldiers at Versailles stomp on tricolour cockades at a drunken party

Answer 51

Louis decided to reinforce his guard by summoning the loyal Flanders regiment to Versailles. He held a banquet to celebrate their arrival, which he and his wife Marie-Antoinette attended. However, during the banquet there were anti-revolutionary demonstrations, including officers trampling on the tricolour cockade of the revolution and replacing it with the white cockade of the Bourbon family. When news of this reached the capital, which was once again suffering food shortages, many people were extremely angry and felt the king should come back to Paris.

Question 52

The October Days: 5th October

Answer 52

The food shortages in Paris were serious, so many of the women of the city stormed the commune’s headquarters (Hotel de Ville) demanding bread. They were persuaded to march to Versailles, 20km away, to put their complaints to the King and the Assembly. They were also angry about the soldiers stamping on the revolutionary cockade just days before. 6,000-7,000 of the women, later followed by 20,000 members of the National Guard, set off on the 5-hour march to Versailles. Like the Bastille, there was bloodshed, severed heads of the Royal Guard and a weak response to the violence. When they reached Versailles, they invaded the Assembly and sent a deputation to the King. Louis agreed to provide them with grain, as well as finally agreeing to approve the August Decrees and the Declaration of Rights. On the 6th October, the royal family left Versailles and moved back to Paris, this time taking with them the National Assembly.

Question 53

Were the October Days significant?

Answer 53

Significant
Prior to the October Days the whole government including the National Assembly were based in Versailles, but afterwards it moved to Paris where it was subject to the influence of the Paris crowds.
Members of the Royal family were virtually prisoners of their own people
The National Assembly was truly and visibly independent of the crown and subject to the pressures of demonstrating mobs, egged on by radical agitators.
The King had offered no resistance to the unruly mobs and untrained National Guard
Seen by the King as more significant than the Bastille as his family were now in danger

Not significant
The October Days did not end the monarchy
By October 1789 the monarchy had got stronger - the Crown had been trying to reform taxation, increase central authority and modernise administration, now all that could be done.
Still few called for the end of the monarchy
A partnership between the Crown and the people through the National Assembly could also be seen as beneficial, as the whole problem of financial issues were taken over by the National Assembly

Question 54

The reaction of the monarchy to the August Decrees

Answer 54

Louis still had not accepted the end of privilege and still saw himself as the representative of the Nation. No one really knew who ruled France and if the changes were to be permanent