The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security Flashcards
1
Q
Is the global carbon cycle an open or closed system
A
Closed
2
Q
What are the three parts of the carbon cycle
A
- Stores
- Fluxes
- Processes
3
Q
What is a Carbon Flux
A
The flows of carbon between different stores
4
Q
What is a Carbon Process
A
The physical ways in which carbon fluxes happen
5
Q
What are the four categories of carbon stores in order of their total amount of carbon stores
A
Lithosphere - 100,000 PgC
Hydrosphere - 38,000 PgC
Biosphere - 2,000 PgC
Atmosphere - 750 PgC
6
Q
Describe the slow carbon cycle
A
Marine creatures such as coral and phytoplankton absorb carbon from seawater, and when their remains collect on the seabed the calcium carbonate remains get compacted by layers above to form carbon rich sedimentary rocks.
These release carbon either by chemical weathering of the rocks, or volcanic eruptions following the subduction of this rock.
7
Q
Describe the fast carbon cycle
A
Photosynthesis from plants or phytoplankton from the atompshere absorbs carbon which is then either respired or transferred when eaten the the predators respire, taking the carbon back into the atmopshere.
It also can be the exchange of carbon between the water (gained from phytoplankton or acid rain) and the atmosphere (evaporation of water)
8
Q
What are 3 examples of large sources of carbon emissions into the atmosphere
A
Deforestation, Burning of Fossil Fuels, Volcanic Eruption
9
Q
3 examples of carbon sinks
A
Ocean, Forest, Soil
10
Q
What is carbon sequestering
A
The process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide
11
Q
How do carbon fossil fuels form
A
Dead organisms sank to the bottom of rivers or seas and, after being covered, started to decya anaerobically (as being covered deprived it oxygen). When organic matter builds up faster than it decay in this situation, fossil fuels are formed such as oil coal or natural gas
12
Q
3 examples of fossil fuels
A
coal, natural gas, oil
13
Q
What is volcanic outgassing?
A
The movement of gases including carbon dioxide from the interior of the Earth to the atmosphere.
14
Q
Which 3 places could volcanic outgassing occur?
A
- Volcanic Areas
- Faultlines
- Hot Springs / Geysers
15
Q
Which biome is particularly effective at producing fossil fuels and why
A
Swamps - the presence of trees and bogs both capture carbon which over time decomposes into fossil fuels
16
Q
What are “Carbon Cycle Pumps”
A
The proccess operating IN OCEANS to circulate and store carbon
17
Q
What are the three carbon cycle pumps
A
- Biological Pump
- Carbonate Pump
- Physical Pump
18
Q
Describe the biological pump
A
Phytoplankton absorbs carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. It is then eaten by larger animals who can move distances and respire the carbon dioxide back into the ocean
19
Q
Phytoplankton accounts for __% of the planets primary productivity
A
50%
20
Q
Describe the carbonate pump
A
carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid and carbonic ions. These ions are used by animals like lobsters, plankton or coral to form a hard outer shell. This uses enough carbon to create room for the ocean to absorb more carbon from the atmopshere. When they die, they either collect at the bottom of the seabed and compress into limestone, or their shells dissolve releasing Carbon Dioxide back into the ocean
21
Q
Describe the physical pump
A
Carbon is easier absorbed into cold water at the poles of the Earth, so absorbs more there, it is then transported in the thermohaline circulation around the world to warmer waters nearer the equator
22
Q
What is the thermohaline circulation
A
Deep ocean currents which transfers water all over the world
23
Q
What are the two factors which allow the thermhalone circulation to exist and how do they affect it
A
Temperature and Salinity - Cold water is more likely to freeze. This freezes the water but leaves the salt behind, increase the density of salt in the water and makes the water denser as a whole. This causes it to sink which initiates the deep ocean currents
24
Q
What is ocean acidification and what primarily causes it
A
The process of the ocean decreasing in pH, as a result of carbon dioxide levels in the ocean increasing
25
What is coral bleaching and why are carbon dioxide concentrations in both the air and sea responsible for it
Coral bleaching is when algae that provides crucial nutrients to the coral are expelled as a result of too high temperatures, damaging and often killing the coral (the lack of algae also turns them white). These temperatures are often driven due to increased atmopsheric carbon dioxide concentrations.
Ocean acidification reduces the ability of coral to recover from coral bleaching as it faster dissolves and therefore reduces the amount of calcium carbonate needed for coral to rebuild themselves.
26
Why is coral bleaching such an environmental problem
Coral bleaching can cause the death of coral leads to the loss of coral reef ecosystems, which 25% of all marine life on Earth is dependent on.
27
Why is coral bleaching such an economic problem
The fishing and tourism industries in many countries rely on coral reefs, over $375 billion of industry is directly linked to coral reefs
28
Why is coral bleaching such a social problem
Coral reefs near coasts protect land in flooding events and the loss of coral reefs puts coastal communities at risk of floods
29
How do land animals contribute to the carbon cycle
Producers absorb carbon through photosynthesis, eaten by primary, secondary consumers etc. who respire. Detritovores break down the bodies of dead animals which also release energy via respiration
30
Describe the tree carbon cycle
Trees absorb CO2 via photosynthesis. Some is respired. Some carbon travels to the roots and respires to the soil. Some leaves containing carbon fall as litter. Some of this is decomposed by detritovores who releases carbon into the atmosphere, while other parts naturally decompose and the carbon seeps into the soil.
31
Why are mangrove soils so effective at sequestering carbon
They grow quickly and as the ground is often submerged the soil is anaerobic, so decomposition is slow and less carbon is released back into the atmosphere via respiration
32
If 2% of the world's mangroves are lost, the amount of carbon would be __x larger than the natural sequestration rate
50x
33
Explain how tundras store carbon
The soil is permanently frozen and therefore any carbon in the soil is trapped in the ice and cannot reenter the atmosphere
34
Tropical forests are responsible for __% of the world's net primary production
30%
35
What is net primary production (NPP)
the total amount of carbon uptake after subtracting the amount of carbon respired by plants
(basically the amount of 'useful' carbon uptake)
36
Why do carbon fluxes between the ecosystem and the atmosphere vary from time to time (2 reasons)
- Photosynthesis occurs more at day so uptake is net positive at day
- Photosynthesis occurs more in spring and summer so uptake is net positive than compared to autumn and winter
37
Since 1750, global concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane have incresed by __%
25%
38
Since the 1980s, __% of carbon emissions have come from burning fossil fuels
75%
39
What are the 2 main ways that humans increase atmospheric Carbon Dioxide emissions
- Deforestation
- Burning Fossil Fuels
40
What is energy security
The uninterrupted availability of energy sources at affordable prices
41
What is short term energy security
The ability of a system to react quickly to sudden changes which may affect energy security
42
What is long term energy security
Making investments to supply energy in line with economic and environmental development
43
What are the four main aspects of energy security
- Availability (making sure there is a supply of energy to provide the consumer)
- Accessibility (making sure the energy can reach the consumer)
- Reliability (making sure the consumer's energy supply is consistent)
- Affordability (making sure consumers are not priced out of energy)
44
What is the energy mix
The combination of different available energy sources which together is used to meet demand
45
Why is a good energy mix important
If a black swan event occurs which effects one of the energy sources, it has a smaller impact on the total energy supply of a country
46
What is energy intensity
A measure of how efficiently a country uses energy - measured by how many units of energy are used per unit of GDP
47
Why is having a largely domestic energy supply better than an overseas supply
Having a domestic supply means there are less outside factors (such as political tensions or financial events in other countries) which could possibly disrupt or increase the cost of energy
48
Other than having a domestic energy supply and a good energy mix, how could a country further increase its energy security
Use renewable energy sources such as wind in order to prevent the risk of running out of finite resources like coal
49
When was the first year that the UK used more renewable energy than it did coal
2015
50
What are the 5 main factors which influence energy decisions
- Physical Availability
- Cost
- Technology Available
- Political Considerations
- Environmental Priorities
51
How does the physical availability influence energy decisions in the UK and Norway?
- The UK used to use mostly coal which was abundant. It then turned to nuclear energy, but now relies on oil and natural gas which was discovered in the North Sea in the 1980s.
- Norway's mountainous terrain makes HEP much more effctive for producing domestic energy. It uses coal from svalbard and the fossil fuel reserves in the North Sea to export for revenue
52
How do costs influence energy decisions in the UK and Norway?
- The UK often has to import due to the high cost of extraction in the North Sea reserves, as well as the decline in stocks there
- Norway's HEP costs are expensive to build but cheap to maintain. The issue with its cost is transporting the generated electriciy through the mountains to remote communities
53
How do political considerations influence energy decisions in the UK and Norway?
- Some people in the UK are concerned over the reliance on energy imports, but other political opponents oppose the construction of fracking and nuclear sites. The UK also privatised its energy sector in the 1980s which introduced European companies like EDF or E-on to British markets, and these companies import mostly
- Norway's government prohibits foreign companies from owning any primary energy source sites such as waterfalls, mines or forests. The government owns the power supply of the country and profits made from the sale of fossil fuels go towards preparing for an environmentally green future without fossil fuels
54
How does technology influence energy decisions in the UK and Norway?
- The UK's current technology made continuing to deep mine coal too unrealistic and expensive. It has developed the technology for 'clean coal' but coal has lost most political support
- Norway's deepwater drilling technology has allowed Norway and the UK to extract fossil fuels from the North Sea
55
How do environmental priorities influence energy decisions in the UK and Norway?
- In 2015, the UK committed to a 40% reduction in greenhouse gases in 2030 from 1990 levels, and intends to use more renewable and nuclear power to increase its energy mix. However, it did leave the 'Green Deal' in 2015. Its annual CO2 emissions decreased from 11.5 tons per capita in 1980 to 7.1 tons in 2015.
- Norway also ommitted to a 40% reduction in greenhouse gases in 2030 from 1990 levels, launched a 'Policy for Change', aiming for carbon neutrality by 2050. It is however the 3rd fastest exporter of hydrocarbons and expanding, and from 1989 to 2015 its CO2 emissions per capita increased from 11.6 to 11.7.
56
According to the IEA, what % do the following make up of the USA's energy mix: (2022)
- Fossil Fuels
- Nuclear
- Renewable Sources
Fossil Fuels: 82%
Nuclear: 10%
Renewables: 8%
57
According to the IEA, what % do the following make up of France's energy mix: (2022)
- Fossil Fuels
- Nuclear
- Renewable Sources
Fossil Fuels: 46%
Nuclear: 40%
Renewables: 14%
58
According to the IEA, what % do the following make up of the UK's energy mix: (2022)
- Fossil Fuels
- Nuclear
- Renewable Sources
Fossil Fuels: 77%
Nuclear: 7%
Renewables: 16%
59
According to the IEA, what % do the following make up of Norway's energy mix: (2022)
- Fossil Fuels
- Nuclear
- Renewable Sources
Fossil Fuels: 44%
Nuclear: 0%
Renewables: 56%
60
Which 5 groups are considered the major 'players' in energy and how do they influence energy
Governments - Guardians of national energy security and can influence sourcing and pricing for geopolitical benefit (like Russia)
TNCS - Responsible for the exploring, extracting, distributing and refining of energy sources. (Gov owned companies don't count)
Consumers - Reflects demand and therefore influences pricing of energy
Energy Companies - Converts primary sources like fossil fuels into secondary sources like electricity and can influence pricing and tariffs
OPEC - Organisation with 12 member countries who own around 80% of the worlds crude oil reserves
61
Provide a case study of a government owned coal company with 3 hard facts
Coal India Ltd.
- The world's largest coal producer, taken over by the government in 1973
- Responsible for 80% of India's coal production
- Produced 494 million tonnes of coal in 2014
62
Provide a case study of a government owned natural gas company and how geopolitics has affected it (1 hard fact)
Gazprom - Russian Owned
Although once and still hugely influential in distributing natural gas from Russia to Europe, conflict in Ukraine and Russia's subsequent decrease in relations with Europe had led to Gazprom having a net loss of $7 billion in 2023
63
Name a country who has made major strides to improve their energy mix and greenness with 3 hard facts
Denmark
- 58% of electricity from wind generation
- Aims to eliminate coal from power generation by 2030
- Be fossil fuel free by 2050
64
Name 4 countries who have used Denmark as a model to start improving the greenness of their energy mix
China, South Africa, Vietnam, Mexico
65
What is the purpose of OPEC
To create a stable income for oil producing countries by controlling and fixing oil prices
66
Why is OPEC controversial
It is by technicality a cartel because it is an organisation which maintains prices at a controlled level and restricts competition
67
Name 3 countries reliant on Russian Gas in Europe
Germany, Poland, Greece
68
Why is the location of Russian Gas pipelines geopolitically significant
They all run through Ukraine as they were built during the existence of the USSR - this means Ukraine has the power to either price up or suspend Russian gasflow to Europe and therefore provides possible motivation to annex them.
69
Name 4 examples of unconventional fossil fuels and a place they can be found
Deep Water Oil - Gulf of Mexico
Tar Sands - Alberta, Canada
Oil Shale - Wyoming, USA
Gas Shale - USA
70
Who are the 4 stakeholders in Canadian Tar Sands Extraction and are they for or against and why
- Government (For - promotes economic development and energy security)
- Oil Companies (For - provides profits and promotes economic development)
- Pressure Groups (Against - Environmental concerns and could disrupt indigenous lives)
- Local Communities (Mixed - provides jobs but causes environmental damage and people moving to work there has caused a housing crisis)
71
What are the environmental consequences of tar sands extraction in Alberta, Canada
- Deforestation reducing carbon uptake and destroys habitats, which has led to caribous declining
- Carbon Emissions rise from extraction and use of tar sands
- Extraction creates waste dumps and toxic ponds which can contaminate water
72
Name an example of a new UK energy development aimed at reducing fossil fuel and overseas dependence and what % of UK's energy it will provide
Hinkley Power Plant Point C - 7%
73
What are 3 problems associated with renewable energy
- Too expensive for many countries
- Takes up a lot of land
- Falls in oil prices incentivise that over renewables
74
What are biofuels
Fuels made directly from biomass such as crops.
75
3 advantages of biofuels
Renewable, does not take specialist machinery and much less carbon emissions than fossil fuels
76
3 disadvatages of biofuels
High maintenance due to fats growth of biomass, reduces crop yield used for food and large amounts of land required often causing deforestation = less carbon uptake
77
What is technocentrism?
The ideology that technology and science is the only key to solving environmental problems
78
What are 3 examples of Radical Technologies used
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
- Hydrogen Fuel Cells
- Electric Vehicles
79
What is CCS?
Capturing high carbon air (like in coal-fired power stations), compressing them and transferring them through pipelines, then storing them in liquid form in underground reservoirs.
80
What are 2 benefits and 2 drawbacks of CCS
+ Very effective at capturing greenhouse gases
+ Allows power plants with the CCS to keep using fossil fuels without atmopsheric pollution
- Incredibly expensive
- Malfunctions could lead to leakages into groundwater
81
How does deforestation affect soil health
More rain on ground washes away finer sediments, leaving behind coarser ones, increasing soil erosion which deprives nutrients making the land less habitable for plants and less arable
82
How does deforestation affect the atmosphere (2)
- Less uptake of carbon/outtake of oxygen
- Drier air due to less evapotranspiration
83
Give an example of a country that has heavily deforested and a key fact
Madagascar - It deforested over 2/3 of its land for space to produce cash crops from 1950 - 1985
84
What is Grassland Conversion and name a place this is extremely common
The process of converting grasslands to crop farms for biofuel - common in the American Midwest
85
What 4 services do ecosystems provide
- Supporting Behaviour (Supporting the survival of the ecosystems)
- Provisioning Services (Providing products like food fuel and medicine)
- Regulating services (Controlling systems like air quality and water)
- Cultural Services (Recreation, Science)
86
Give 3 examples of goods and services provided by forests
Goods:
- Fuel
- Timber
- Medicine (or any other valid)
Services:
- Carbon Capture
- Recreation
- Habitat (or any other valid)
87
How many land conflicts took place in Indonesia in 2016 that were related to Palm Oil
700
88
Name 2 environmental impacts of the increase of Palm Oil plantations in Indonesia
- Deforestation creates reduction in carbon uptake
- Reduces numbers of animals like elephants, tigers and orangutans
89
What did Indonesia introduce in 2011 to combat deforestation and to what extent was it a success
A 'forest moratorium' which pledged $1 billion (with UN and Norwegian funding) to fight deforestation and ban clearing primary forest or peatland for wood or palm oil.
Although it has reduced clearance of forests by 15%, its usefulness is limited by illegal logging
90
What is the correlation between rates of afforestation/deforestation and development of a country
The poorer the country, the higher the annual deforestation rate
91
What does Kuznet's Curve suggest (continue from EQ3 slide 36)
the more countries develop, the more environmental degradation occurs, until the country has developed to a certain point at which environmental degradation decreases
92
Implications for carbon cycle in Arctic from Global Warming
- Methane released from thawing permafrost
- CO2 from forest fires as boreal forests dry out
- Opportunity for forests to expand into previously uninhabitable areas
93
From 1958-2008, total ice area in Yukon shrank by __%
22%
94
Since 2000, inflows to the Yukon have increased by __% as a result of increased ablation and precipitation
39%
95
How does global warming affect the thermohaline circulation
It weakens it
96
Habitat changes could lead to rates for extinction for __% to __% of animals
15 - 40%
97
4 benefits of having mangrove forests
- Reduces rate of erosion
- Provides shelter and habitats
- Collects nutrient rich sediment
- Protects against flood damage
98
Since 1950, __% of global mangrove forests have been lost, of which __% is due to shrimp farm construction or tourist developments
Since 1950, 50% of global mangrove forests have been lost, of which 25% is due to shrimp farm construction or tourist developments
99
Climate models predict a global rise of _ to _% degrees from 2000 to 2100
2 - 6%
100
Give reasons why the extent of future climate change is uncertain
- Unknowns about feedback mechanisms
- Human factors (Development, Population, Focus on Climate Change)
- Extent of permafrost
101
What is a 'tipping point' in reference to climate change
A critical threshold which could completely destabilise conditions and be a 'point of no return'
102
What are the two phenomena that could trigger a tipping point and how
- Forest Dieback (Where the level of dieback prevents moisture recycling in rainforests catalysing more dieback
- Thermohaline Collapse (Changes global temperatures drastically)
103
How would a thermohaline collapse occur
The conveyer belt of water in the Arctic relies on dense, salty water to sink, but if enough freshwater ice melts then it would not be salty enough, making it less heavy and stopping it sinking which blocks the thermohaline circulation
104
How would each hemisphere be affected by thermohaline collapse
The Northern Hemisphere would become far colder, especially around Greenland and Iceland, whereas the Southern Hemisphere would become far warmer
105
Mitigation vs Adaptation in climate change
Mitigation - Trying to prevent climate change
Adaptation - Taking measures to thrive in a world affected by climate change
106
3 mitigation tactics that can be used to help prevent climate change
- Afforestation
- Carbon Taxation
- Radical Technologies
107
3 adaptation tactics that can be used to help adapt to climate change
- Water Conservation and Management
- Flood-Risk Management
- Education
108
Name an example of a CCS place
Boundary Dam, Canada
109
When and where was the first COP meeting
Berlin, 1995
110
When was the Kyoto Protocol and what came of it
(1997) Set targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for developd countries. 38 countries making up 55% of total emissions agreed to cut CO2 emissions by 5-8% by 2012. However, it achieved not enough as major countries like the USA didn't sign
111
When was the Paris Agreement and what came of it
(2015) Target set to reduce carbon emissions and limit global warming to 2 degrees, however many countries did not stick to the agreement without consequence and countrie slike the USA have left and want to leave again
