The Biological Approach Flashcards
what are the three assumptions of the biological approach?
- evolutionary influences
- localisation of brain functions
- neurotransmitters
what is the theory of natural selection?
(evolutionary influences)
behaviour that increases an individual’s chances of survival is passed on to the next generation
what is EEA?
(evolutionary influences)
the environment of evolutionary adaptiveness
- behaviour evolves in accordance with an individuals particular environment
what does EEA assume about the evolution of humans?
(evolutionary influences)
that we have evolved in response to the complex social organisation of our species
what are the four lobes of the human brain, and their main functions?
(localisation of brain functions)
- frontal lobe - thinking, creativity, personality
- parietal lobe - sensory information
- temporal lobe - memory processing, processing of auditory information
- occipital lobe - visual processing
what are neurons?
(neurotransmitters)
electrically excitable cells that form the basis of the nervous system
how do neurons communicate?
(neurotransmitters)
at synapses, with messages relayed by neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)
what are some common neurotransmitters and their functions?
- dopamine - rewards and schizophrenia
- serotonin - sleep and arousal
- adrenaline - arousal
- GABA - decreases anxiety
what are selective pressures?
the qualities one looks for in a partner to increase their own chances of survival (most often applied to romantic relationships)
what is parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972)?
female mammals invest more in their offspring and so must be ‘choosier’ in finding a partner, seeking out males with the most resources
what chemical is linked to human bonding, trust and loyalty?
oxytocin
(linked to romantic attachment)
what is kin selection and what does it explain?
- natural selection of traits that enhance the survival of those with similar genes
- used to explain formation of sibling relationships
what is a palliative therapy?
treats symptoms of a disease, does not cure it (drug therapy falls under this category)
what is drug therapy most commonly used to treat?
depression
anxiety disorders
schizophrenia
what are the three main drugs for treatment of depression and their characteristics?
MAOIs - many side effects, hardly used
Tricyclics - more effective, fewer side effects (still has some, eg. dizziness, blurred vision)
SSRI’s (example: prozac) - as effective, more advantages (harder to overdose, etc), less side effects, can conflict with other medications
what is lithium carbonate used for, and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
- first used in 1970 to treat manic depression (bipolar)
- pros: reduces manic and depressed episodes by 80%, reduced the previously 15% suicide rate of patients (Gerbino, Oleshanksy and Gershwin, 1970)
cons: many side effects, can be lethal, difficult to stop taking (manic symptoms increase dramatically)
what drugs have been/are used to treat anxiety disorders?
- barbiturates - many side effects (slurred speech, concentration, etc), addictive
- benzodiazepines (eg. valium) - more precise, fewer side effects, some side effects, potential for addiction
- beta-blockers (BBs) - bind to receptor cells on heart and other parts of body, heart beats slower, mostly used by athletes and musicians to reduce arousal
what are neuroleptic drugs, and their pros and cons?
- used in treatment of schizophrenia (psychotic disorders)
- pros - reduce positive symptoms, - strongest benefits after six months
- cons - little effect on negative symptoms, serious consequences if treatment is interrupted, many side effects mean small doses must be given (reduces effectiveness)
what is a positive symptom?
an addition to normal behaviour (eg. delusions and hallucinations)
what is a negative symptom?
take away from normal behaviour (eg. social withdrawal, lack of motivation)
what are some side effects of neuroleptics found by Windgassen (1992) find?
- 50% reported grogginess or sedation
- 20% developed tardive dyskinesia (involuntary sucking, chewing, jerking of limbs), which may remain after medication has stopped
what are atypical antipsychotic drugs, and their pros and cons?
- used to treat schizophrenia (psychotic disorders)
- pros: benefit more patients, more effective for negative symptoms, less side effects
cons: 1-2% of developing a life-threatening condition (agranulocytosis-reduction of white cells
what are the strengths of drug therapy?
- drugs vs placebo (more effective than placebos during trials)
- easy, efficient and cheap compared to other forms of therapy
what study was done by Kahn et al (1968) in reference to drug therapy?
- followed 250 patients over 8 weeks
- found benzodiazepines to be more effective in the treatment of OCD in the short term (3 months of treatment)
what is a negative of the evidence of the effectiveness of drugs compared to placebos?
most studies completed only show short-term effectiveness (3-4 months); Koran et al (2007)
what are the weaknesses of drug therapy?
- side effects
- palliative not curative
- ethical issues: use of placebos, patient information (valid consent, withholding or exaggerating of information, patient understanding)
what percentage of people benefited from atypical antipsychotic drugs, compared to neuroleptic?
atypical - 85%
neuroleptic - 65%
what is the classic evidence for the biological approach?
Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997) - brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography
what was the methodology of the classic evidence?
natural experiment
matched pairs design
how many murderers were used in the classic evidence?
41: 39 men, 2 women
what did the murderers used in the classic evidence all plead?
not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
what sampling method was used in the classic evidence?
opportunity sampling
what type of brain scan was used in the classic evidence?
PET scan
who formed the control group in the classic evidence?
- normal individuals of same sex and age were used
- schizophrenics were matched with schizophrenics
where was reduced brain activity found? (classic evidence)
areas of brain previously linked to violence (left hemisphere, prefrontal cortex, etc.)
where was increased brain activity found? (classic evidence;biological)
areas of brain not previously linked to violence (eg. cerebellum, right hemisphere)
where was no difference in brain activity found? (classic evidence)
structures associate with mental illness, but not violence (putamen, midbrain, etc.)
what differences were not controlled for? (classic evidence)
- handedness
- ethnicity
- head injury
what conclusions/findings can be drawn from the classic evidence? (biological approach)
it cab be taken as preliminary evidence that murderers pleading NGRI have different brain functioning to normal individuals
what are the limitations of the classic evidence study? (evaluation; bio approach)
- cannot draw causal conclusions (natural experiment)
- only generalisable to small/specific group of people
what was the conclusion of Yang and Raine’s (2009) meta-analysis?
(classic evidence, evaluation)
there was significantly reduced prefrontal activity in anti-social and/or violent individuals
what are potential ethical issues with the classic evidence?
- valid consent (eg. as prisoners, may not understand right to withdraw)
- socially sensitive research (broader social implications)
what are the four main topics around the ethicality of neuroscience?
- understanding consciousness
- treating criminal behaviour
- enhancing neurological function
- improving marketing techniques
evidence for understanding consciousness…
(debate)
Koubeissi et al (2014); 54-year-old epileptic woman, when an electrode was placed near her claustrum, stopped responding to cues, having no recollection when it was removed
(supports: claustrum is seat of consciousness)
what are the arguments against understanding consciousness?
(debate; bio approach)
- moral issue of right to withdraw care from vegetative patients
- doubt if evidence is valid: case study, had epilepsy
how could neuroscience aid in the treatment of criminal behaviour?
(debate)
if criminal behaviour stems from abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, then drugs could be used to ‘treat/rehabilitate’ criminals
what evidence can be given for the treatment of criminal behaviour?
(debate)
Cherek et al (2002):
- researched impulsivity and aggression in males with history of conduct disorder and criminal behaviour
- half given placebo, half given SSRI antidepressant
- those with drug showed significant decrease in impulsive responses and depression
what arguments are given against the treatment of criminal behaviour?
(debate; bio approach)
Martha Farah (2004):
- use of neurological interventions by court signals a denial of individual freedom
ethical issue:
- implicit coercion - criminal could be left with little choice
what evidence can be used for the enhancing of neurological function?
(debate; bio approach)
Cohen Kadosh et al (2012):
- TDCS (electric current across specific brain regions) leads to improvements in problem solving and mathematical, language, memory and attention capabilities
- could be used by students in preparation for exams
what are the arguments against the enhancing of neurological function?
Cohen Kadosh et al:
- ethical limitations of TDCS: no training or licence rules for practitioners, not available to all (eg. financial limitations or location) giving some unfair advantages (can be compared to performance enhancing drugs in sports)
how can neuroscience be used to improve marketing techniques?
(debate)
- neuromarketing can be used to avoid social desirability bias
what are examples of neuromarketing techniques?
- eye tracking equipment
- EEG (recording of brain activity)
what did Wilson et al (2008) claim about neuromarketing techniques?
(debate)
that it will allow brands to deliver personalised messages that compromise free will
- could remove ability to make informed decisions about product purchases
what did Nelson (2008) discover about neuromarketing firms?
(debate)
- not obliged to abide by ethical codes of practice
- found that 5% of brain scans recorded by marketing firms include ‘incidental findings’ that they are not required to report
what are the strengths of the biological approach?
- scientific
- determinist
- successful applications
why is the biological approach being determinist a strength?
(evaluation)
if we know what ‘predetermines’ behaviour we can more easily treat people with abnormal behaviour
what is an example of the usefulness of this determinism?
(evaluation)
- linking of dopamine to schizophrenia was done though biological evidence
- causal explanation allows for treatment through drugs, shown to be effective
what are examples of successful applications?
(evaluation;bio approach)
- Cherek et al (2002) - neurotransmitters in criminals
- Viguera et al (2000) - 60% of bipolar patients improve when taking lithium
what are the weaknesses of the biological approach?
(evaluation)
- reductionist
- nature over nurture
- individual differences
what is the issue with reductionism?
(evaluation;bio approach)
- may not reach true understanding of target behaviour
- provides incomplete explanations of behaviour (does not take into account other/outside factors)
what is are examples of reductionism within the biological approach?
(evaluation)
- reduction of stress to just the action of the hormone adrenaline
- reduction of schizophrenia to failure of a complex chemical system: provides incomplete explanation, ignores experience of distress (R.D Laing, 1965)
what does nomothetic mean?
(evaluation; individual differences)
concerned with making generalisations and finding overarching similarities in behaviours
what is an example of male bias within biological research?
(evaluation; individual differences)
Taylor et al (2000):
- males tend to react to stress with ‘fight or flight’
- females tend to react to stress with ‘tend and befriend’
- attributed to oxytocin levels and production
- fight or flight has been generalised to entire population due to male biased research
