The Authoritarian Models

Question 1

Which are the authoritarian regimes?

Answer 1

Russia, China, Saudi Arabia, and Iran

Question 2

Does the Russian Constitution give a lot of power to the president?

Answer 2

Yes. The President has broad authority to issue decrees and directives that have the force of law without legislative review, although the constitution notes that they must not contravene that document or other laws.

Question 3

Explain the requirements in Russian elections

Answer 3

The Law on Presidential Elections requires that the winner receive more than 50% of the votes cast. If no candidate receives more than 50% of the vote, the top two candidates in term of votes must face each other in a run-off election.

Question 4

Explain the Russian Constitution amendmnet in relation to the elections

Answer 4

Under the original 1993 constitution, the President was elected for a four-year term but, in November 2008, the constitution was amended to make this a six year term. The President is eligible for a second term but constitutionally he is barred from a third consecutive term.

Question 5

Explain the time line of Russia’s Presidents

Answer 5

The first President of the new Russia was Boris Yelsin who was elected in June 1991. He was followed by his hand-picked successor Vladimir Putin. After a term as Acting President, he was elected for his first term in May 2000 and for a second term in March 2004. In accordance with the constitution, he stepped down in March 2008 and was succeeded by his nominated successor Dmitry Medvedev (previously a First Deputy Prime Minister).
In March 2012, Putin was re-elected as President on the first ballot in a widely criticized election in which the opposition candidates were weak, the media was compliant, and there were many electoral irregularities. He took office in May 2012 and will serve for six years. He was reelected in 2018 until 2024 when he will be 71. Currently Vladimir Putin tries to get a constitutional reform to stay longer in power via a referendum (this was postponed due to the Corona virus).

Question 6

Who is the current Presdient of Russia? And the Prime Minister?

Answer 6

The current President of Russia is Vladimir Putin and the Prime Minister is Mijaíl Mishustinnt.

Question 7

What is the lower house in the Russian Federal Assembly? Explain it

Answer 7

The lower house in the Russian Federal Assembly is the State Duma. It is the more powerful house, so all bills, even those proposed by the Federation Council, must first be considered by the Duma. However, the Duma’s power to force the resignation of the Government is severely limited. It may express a vote of no confidence in the Government by a majority vote of all members of the Duma, but the President is allowed to disregard this vote.

Question 8

How many memebers does the Duma have? How are they elected?

Answer 8

The Duma has 450 members who are known as deputies. Originally seats in the Duma were elected half by proportional representation (with at least 5% of the vote to qualify for seats) and half by single member districts. However, President Putin passed a decree that from the November 2007 election all seats were to be elected by proportional representation with at least 7% of the vote to qualify for seats. This 7% threshold was one of the highest in Europe and, by introducing this, Putin eliminated independents and made it effectively impossible for small parties to be elected to the Duma.

Question 9

What is Russia’s Upper House? Expain its main features

Answer 9

The upper house in the Russian Federal Assembly is the Federation Council. The Council has 170 members who are known as senators. Each of the 85 federal subjects of Russia sends two members to the Council.
As a result of the territorial nature of the upper house, terms to the Council are not nationally fixed, but instead are determined according to the regional bodies the senators represent.

Question 10

Explain the main characteristics of China and the Communist Party

Answer 10

China makes no pretense to be – or to want to be – a democracy in the Western style.
Since the end of the civil war in 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has ruled the country and operates a pyramid of power which reaches down to every village and every workplace. The Party’s 85-million membership makes it the biggest political party in the world.
As with the former Communist-controlled USSR and its satellite states, China pretends to be a multi-party state by technically permitting a limited number of other political parties. The eight registered minor parties have existed since before 1950. These parties all formally accept the leadership of the CPC and their activities are directed by the United Front Work Department of the CPC.

Question 11

Explain the main features of the Chinese Constitution

Answer 11

The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China is a changing document. The first Constitution was declared in 1954. After two intervening versions enacted in 1975 and 1978, the current Constitution was declared in 1982. There were significant differences between each of these versions, and the 1982 Constitution has subsequently been amended no less than four times (1988, 1993, 1999, and 2004). In addition, changing Constitutional conventions have led to significant changes in the structure of Chinese government in the absence of changes in the actual text of the Constitution.

Question 12

What is the Politburo? How are its members elected?

Answer 12

The 25-member Politburo is elected by the party’s Central Committee. New Politburo members are chosen only after rigorous discussion and investigation of their backgrounds, experience and views. To reach the top, people need a strong record of achievement working for the party, to have the right patrons, to have dodged controversy, and to have avoided making powerful enemies.

Question 13

Explain the power of the members of the Politiburo

Answer 13

Formally, the power of Politburo members stems from their positions in the decision-making body. But in China, personal relations count much more than job titles. A leader’s influence rests on the loyalties he or she builds with superiors and proteges, often over decades.

Question 14

What is China’s most senior decision-making body? Explain it

Answer 14

China’s most senior decision-making body is the seven-member Standing Committee of the Politburo which works as a kind of inner cabinet and groups together the country’s most influential leaders. How the Standing Committee operates is secret and unclear, but its meetings are thought to be regular and frequent, often characterized by blunt speaking and disagreement. Although policy disagreements and factional fighting are widely believed to take place in private, it is extremely rare for these to break into the public domain.
Members of the Standing Committee also share out the posts of party General Secretary, premier, chairman of the National People’s Congress, and head of the Discipline Inspection Commission.

Question 15

What bodies are controlled by the Politiburo in China?

Answer 15

• The National People’s Congress or parliament
• The State Council, the government’s administrative arm
• The Military Affairs Commission which controls the armed forces

Question 16

Who is the President of China? And the current Prime Minister?

Answer 16

The President of China is the head of state. He is currently Xi Jinping who was appointed at the end of 2012 and is expected to serve for 10 years.
He has abandoned the Communist Party’s once hallowed tradition of ‘collective leadership’ in favor of strongman rule by himself. While he is genuinely opposed to corruption among party officials, he has used his anti-corruption campaign to remove rivals and consolidate power.
The current Prime Minister of China is Li Keqiang.

Question 17

How are China’s Central Committee members elected?

Answer 17

The Central Committee is elected once every five years by the National Congress of the Communist Party of China although in fact almost all of these people are approved in advance. This Central Committee has 205 full members and 171 lower-ranking or “alternate” members”. It meets every couple of months.

Question 18

Explain the Central Committee of China

Answer 18

The Central Committee is, formally, the “party’s highest organ of authority” when the National People’s Congress is not in session. According to the Party Constitution, it is vested with the power to elect the General Secretary and the members of the Politburo, its Standing Committee, and the Military Affairs Commission, and to endorse the composition of the Discipline Inspection Commission. It also oversees work of various powerful national organs of the party.

Question 19

What is the most powerful organ of the state in China, according to the Constitution?

Answer 19

Under China’s 1982 constitution, the most powerful organ of state is meant to be the National People’s Congress (NPC), China’s unicameral legislature. However, the reality is that this is little more than a rubber stamp for party decisions.

Question 20

Explain China’s Congress

Answer 20

The Congress is made up of 2,270 delegates elected by China’s provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities and the armed forces. Delegates hold office for five years. The full Congress is convened for one session in March of each year and lasts a mere two weeks.
In theory, the Congress has the powers to change the constitution and make laws. But it is not, and is not meant to be, an independent body in the Western sense of a parliament.
About 70% of its delegates - and almost all its senior figures - are also party members. Their loyalty is to the party first, the NPC second.
What actually tends to happen, therefore, is that the party drafts most new legislation and passes it to the NPC for “consideration”, better described as speedy approval.
The formal position is that Congress “elects” the country’s highest leaders, including the State President and Vice-President, the Chairman of the government’s own Military Affairs Commission, and the President of the Supreme People’s Court.

Question 21

Explain China’s State Council

Answer 21

The State Council is the cabinet which oversees China’s vast government machine. It sits at the top of a complex bureaucracy of commissions and ministries and is responsible for making sure party policy is implemented from the national to the local level.
The State Council’s most important roles are to draft and manage the national economic plan and the state budget, giving it decision-making powers over almost every aspect of people’s lives. It is also responsible for law and order.

Question 22

How does China’s court system work?

Answer 22

Unlike in democratic countries, the China’s court system is in no sense independent. Both main legal organs answer to the National People’s Congress.

Question 23

Explain the Supreme People’s Procuratorate in China

Answer 23

The Supreme People’s Procuratorate is the highest legal supervisory body, charged with safeguarding the constitution, laws and people’s rights.
The Supreme People’s Court sits at the top of a pyramid of people’s courts going down to the local level. Public security organs are in charge of the investigation, detention and preparatory examination of criminal cases.

Question 24

Explain the current political situation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Answer 24

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the Al Saud family. Since 2005 King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud has ruled under the title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, a reference to his responsibility for Islam’s two holiest sites in Mecca and Medina. The government bases its legitimacy on its interpretation of Sharia (Islamic law) and the 1992 Basic Law.
Islamic law, the Sharīʿah, is the primary source of legislation, but the actual promulgation of legislation and implementation of policy is often mitigated by more mundane factors, such as political expediency, the inner politics of the ruling family, and the influence of intertribal politics, which remain strong in the modern kingdom.

Question 25

Does Saudi Arabia have a Constitution?

Answer 25

The kingdom has never had a written constitution, although in 1992 the king issued a document known as the Basic Law of Government (Al-Niẓām al-Asāsī lī al-Ḥukm), which provides guidelines for how the government is to be run and sets forth the rights and responsibilities of citizens.

Question 26

Explain the role of the king in Saudi Arabia

Answer 26

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions. As prime minister, he presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is ruled by King Salman. He is the King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia and custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.

Question 27

Explain the Council of Ministers in Saudi Arabia

Answer 27

The council is responsible for such executive and administrative matters as foreign and domestic policy, defense, finance, health, and education, which it administers through numerous separate agencies. Appointment to and dismissal from the council are prerogatives of the king.
The Basic Law of Government paved the way in 1993 for the establishment of a new quasi-legislative body, the Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shūrā), which includes many technical experts; all members are appointed by the king. The Consultative Council has the power to draft legislation and, along with the Council of Ministers, promote it for the king’s approval.
In the end, however, all major policy decisions are made outside these formal apparatuses. Decisions are made through a consensus of opinion that is sought primarily within the royal family, many of whom hold sensitive government posts.

Question 28

Explain Saudi Arabia’s geographical organization

Answer 28

The kingdom is divided into 13 administrative regions (manāṭiq), which in turn are divided into numerous districts. Regional governors are appointed, usually from the royal family, and preside over one or more municipal councils, half of whose members are appointed and half elected. With their councils, the governors are responsible for such functions as finance, health, education, agriculture, and municipalities.

Question 29

Explain the Judicial System of Saudi Arabia

Answer 29

In 1970 the Ministry of Justice was established; its work is assisted by a Supreme Judicial Council consisting of leading members of the ʿulamāʾ. There are more than 300 Sharīʿah courts across the country.

Question 30

Explain the royal political situation of Saudi Arabia

Answer 30

The Crown Prince is Mohammad bin Salman who is the First Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman of the Council for Economic and Development Affairs, Chairman of the Council of Political and Security Affairs, and Minister of Defence.
Saudi Arabia is an unitary islamic absolute monarchy.

Question 31

Explain the role of the President in Iran

Answer 31

The president is elected for four years and can serve no more than two consecutive terms
The constitution describes him as the second-highest ranking official in the country. He is head of the executive branch of power and is responsible for ensuring the constitution is implemented.
In practice, however, presidential powers are circumscribed by the clerics and conservatives in Iran’s power structure, and by the authority of the Supreme Leader. It is the Supreme Leader, not the president, who controls the armed forces and makes decisions on security, defense, and major foreign policy issues.

Question 32

How are the members of the cabinet appointed?

Answer 32

Members of the cabinet, or Council of Ministers, are chosen by the president. They must be approved by parliament. Parliament can also impeach ministers.

Question 33

Explain Iran’s Parliament

Answer 33

The 290 members of the Majlis, or parliament, are elected by popular vote every four years. The parliament has the power to introduce and pass laws, as well as to summon and impeach ministers or the president.
However, all Majlis bills have to be approved by the conservative Guardian Council.

Question 34

Explain Iran’s Assembly of Experts

Answer 34

The responsibilities of the Assembly of Experts are to appoint the Supreme Leader, monitor his performance and remove him if he is deemed incapable of fulfilling his duties. The assembly usually holds two sessions a year.

Question 35

What is the Guardian Council in Iran?

Answer 35

This is the most influential body in Iran and is currently controlled by conservatives. It consists of six theologians appointed by the Supreme Leader and six jurists nominated by the judiciary and approved by parliament.
The council has to approve all bills passed by parliament and has the power to veto them if it considers them inconsistent with the constitution and Islamic law.

Question 36

How are the members of the Guardian Council elected?

Answer 36

Members are elected for six years on a phased basis, so that half the membership changes every three years.
The council can also bar candidates from standing in elections to parliament, the presidency and the Assembly of Experts.

Question 37

What is the Supreme Leader in Iran? Who is he?

Answer 37

The role of Supreme Leader in the constitution is based on the ideas of Ayatollah Khomeini, who positioned the leader at the top of Iran’s political power structure.
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the judiciary, six of the members of the powerful Guardian Council, the commanders of all the armed forces, Friday prayer leaders and the head of radio and TV. He also confirms the president’s election.
The Leader is chosen by the clerics who make up the Assembly of Experts.
The current Supreme Leader is Ali Khamenei and the President is Hassan Rouhani.

Question 38

Explain the judiciary system of Iran

Answer 38

The Iranian judiciary has never been independent of political influence. Until early last century it was controlled by the clergy. The system was later secularised, but after the revolution the Supreme Court revoked all previous laws that were deemed un-Islamic. New laws based on Sharia - law derived from Islamic texts and teachings - were introduced soon after.
The judiciary ensures that the Islamic laws are enforced and defines legal policy. It also nominates the six lay members of the Guardian Council. The head of the judiciary is appointed by, and reports to, the Supreme Leader.