The application of the scientific method Flashcards
What is science?
science is about establishing truths.
Scientific research should be objective and independent of beliefs or opinions. The methods used should be empirical - based on collected data.
One way to do this is to carry our a laboratory experiment that collects quantitative data and has strictly controlled variables.
the research can then be repeated (replicated) to check reliability. This means cause and effect can be established.
Explain the features of psychological research that make it difficult to investigate a hypothesis scienfically
Psychological research is very different to research carried out in other sciences, there a number of factors that make it difficult to investigate hypothesis scientifically, and these include the following:
I) Sampling - using representative samples. a problem is that humans vary a lot e.g. age, gender, culture & class as well as individual differences. This makes it difficult to generalise to the whole population from small samples.
ii) Operationalization - operationalizing variables means defining them in measureable terms. However, some human characteristics such as love or jealousy are hard to operationalize.
iii) Experiments focus on a few variables - this means they are simplistic compared to real life. This lack of ecological validity means normal behaviour might not be seen in a controlled experiment.
iv) participant variables - participants may try to work out what the experiment is about and show demand characteristics such as love or jealousy are hard to operationalize.
v) Experimenter effects - researchers bring their own biases and expectations to an experiment. they can also influence participants by giving out subtle cues about how they should behave.
What are the four objectives of psychological science?
- Description - finding out what happens
- understanding - finding out how and why something happens.
Once something can be explained, it may be possible to: - Predict what will happen in a specific context.
- Predict what will happen in a specific context
- Control a phenomenon.
Explain the scientific method
- The scientific method is used to carry out research across the sciences, including psychology. This involves observation which needs explaining, so testable hypothesis are developed and research is planned and carried out to test the hypotheses.
-Results of the research will lead to the support or rejection of the hypotheses.
-the science of psychology has to be objective, controlled and checkable according to coolican.
-One way to examine behaviour is the empirical method which involves collecting large amounts of information (data) then thoroughly studying this data in order to formulate a theory or reach a conclusion.
-the empirical method involves using scientific procedures such as experiments where there is deliberate manipulation of one variable while keeping all other variable constant.
-Also in experiments the participants are randomly allocated to conditions In this way the experimental method can determine cause and effect; this includes laboratory and field experiments.
-Psychology relies on the hypothtico-deductive method which involves testing theories by generating hypotheses. these are testable predictions generated from theories.
-Example: If someone proposed a theory that girls are more intelligent than boys, it could be tested by generating a more specific testable hypothesis such as ‘Girls will achieve significantly higher intelligence test (IQ) scores than boys’
-the main characteristics that distinguish science from other activities include: replicability and Objectivity.
Replication is considered essential in scientific research. there is little point in claiming some scientific effect unless it can be repeated. In order to replication to be possible, all details of the original study must be published, including the procedure, data and results. For research to be judged as reliable it has to have consistent results when it is replicated.
What is objectivity?
Objectivity is another important factor in scientific research. Any judgements, theories, findings, explanations must be based on observable phenomena; they must not be influences by emotions or personal prejudices.
Explain theory construction
Implicit theory refers to ‘everyday’ theories that we generate during our everyday lives. For example, you may have a theory that tea tastes better if you pour in your milk after the tea rather than before.
-Scientific theories are formulated in an attempt to explain behaviour that have been repeatedly observed. Once a scientific theory has been constructed it must be subjected to rigorous testing to see whether the gathered evidence supports or challenges the theoretical explanation about why something happens. Theories need to be tested in order to add to our body of scientific knowledge. Theory construction equates to the understanding goal of science discussed in the previous section.
Explain hypothesis testing
Hypotheses are derived from theory, using a process of deduction, and are systematically tested through research.
A hypothesis is a precise testable statement of the expected outcome of a research study. Testing a single hypothesis cannot usually test an entire theory. Instead, specific hypotheses are generated and tested in order to test elements of the theory.
A theory, or more likely an aspect of a theory, is challenged if research evidence does not support the predictions articulated within the hypothesis when they are tested.
Explain the use of Empirical Methods
A fundamental characteristic of science is its reliance on the empirical methods of observation and measurement, i.e. methods that rely on direct sensory experience.
Empiricism is the name given to the belief that the only source of true knowledge is through our sense, and that careful observation and measurement are needed to generate this form of knowledge. This led to the assertion that all scientific evidence should be empirical, which is a statement about the type of evidence that is accepted by the scientific community. All scientific knowledge must be based on evidence that is accepted by the scientific community.
All scientific knowledge must be based on evidence received via our senses through direct observation, direct experience or measurement, rather than intuition, personal opinions or beliefs.
Explain General Law and Principles: Pooper’s principle of Falsifiability
- Popper argues that theories should be falsifiable
- the scientific process involved the two processed of induction and deduction
- Before the 20th century science largely used the principles of induction - making discoveries about the world through accurate observation and formulating theories based on the regularities observed.
- the hypothetico-deductive method was proposed by Karl Popper
- this suggests theories about the would should come first and these should be used to generate hypotheses which could be falsified.
- Popper claimed is easy to gather evidence to support a theory but it’s impossible to prove a theory right through empirical evidence.
- He argued a theory is scientific if its falsifiable - if it can be proved wrong
- so every test of a theory should be an attempt to falsify it. Freud’s theory is non-scientific because it’s non-falsifiable. It can’t be proved wrong because its based on the unconscious mind.
Define replicability
Replicability is the ability to repeat a study to check that the same or similar findings are achieved. This is an important feature of science because the findings from research studies are used to see whether a hypothesis supports or refutes a theory. To do this the procedures and findings of the study should be repeatable. If a study or its findings cannot be replicated, reliability is not achieved and they cannot be used in the theory construction process.
What is peer review and what is its aim?
The aim of peer review is to ensure that research is valid, performed correctly, analysed correctly and is not made up.
It also considers the significance of the research and its originality
It is the process of subjecting a piece of research to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality.
what is the role of peer review?
- before the research is even conducted the research proposals will be sent to a number of experts for external scrutiny
- A research ethics committee will also scrutinise the work to ensure high ethical standards are met
- One a study is completed it is expected to be published so that it is in the public domain. This allows a spirit of openness which encourages debate and inspires further research. But before research can be published it is subjected to external review and double blind peer review. This safeguards the quality of the published research
What is the external review process of peer review?
The editor of the publication that the research is set be published in is often an internationally recognised expert in the field and is often supported by other experts.
The names of these experts usually appear at the front of every issues of the publication because its credibility and reputation will largely depend on their expertise.
The editorial board is often supported by a bank of external reviewers with expertise in that area. If submitted, a paper is often sent to two external reviewers who read the draft carefully and provide detailed commentary on all key aspects of the study.
The external reviewers will arrive at independent judgements about whether the research is worth of publication.
what is double-blind peer review?
Reviewers are not told who has undertaken the research they are reviewing. Double blind review indicated that ate least two people were involved in the ‘blind’ independent review process.
This ensures that the review is based on the scientific merit of the research rather than the prejudices of the individual reviewer.
The quality and methodology of the work will be scrutinised.
Once the editor has received the reviews he/she will respond to the author of the research to indicate whether the paper will be published without any changes (highly unusual), with minor modifications requested by the reviewers, or with major changes that may mean it will need to be reviewed again before publication.
Peer review may be rejected, accepted and sent back for revisions.
Why is peer review an important part of the scientific process?
- It is difficult for authors and researchers to spot every mistake in a piece of work
- It helps prevent the communication of irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate fraud.
- Peer reviewers can also judge the quality and significance of the research in a wider context.
- This process ensures that published research can be taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinised by fellow researchers.
