The affluent society: Britain 1951-64

Question 1

How did the Labour party change Britain in terms of political/foreign policy between the years 1945-1951?

Answer 1

NATO: Britain played key role in its formation in 1949. A defensive alliance containing 10 Western European nations to safeguard against soviet expansion. Britain became a nuclear power.
India independence -> Labour party was committed to independence for India. Motivated by morality and economic reasons (could no longer afford to maintain the empire)
Britain declined to become formally involved in Europe, choosing not to become a member of the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)

Question 2

What was the impact of Britain’s key role in formation of NATO?

Answer 2

Shaped UK’s foreign policy as being pro-American/capitalist and anti-Soviet/communist. The adoption of nuclear weapons annoyed many people on the political left. Many labour politicians were resentful to the gov -> this caused political divide.

Question 3

What was the impact of Indian independence?

Answer 3

Hugely significant as it marked the beginning of Britain dismantling their empire. Starting a process of decolonisation that other governments would follow.

Question 4

What was the impact of Britain declining to become formally involved with Europe?

Answer 4

Set the precedent that Britain was not a team player in Europe. Britain did not want to take risks with the economy by getting involved in a scheme controlled by foreign organisations.

Question 5

How did the Labour party change Britain socially between the years 1945-51?

Answer 5

1942 Beveridge Report identified ‘five giants’ that needed to be overcome (want, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness).
Labour establishment of the welfare states came in four major measures that came into effect in 1948, these included: National Insurance Act, National Assistance Act, Industrial Injuries Act and the National Health Service. These were complimented by two other measures: The Education Act/Butler Act 1944 provided compulsory free education within a tripartite system, Family Allowances Act 1945 provided a weekly payment of five shillings for every additional child after the first.

Question 6

When was the Beveridge Report published?

Answer 6

1942

Question 7

What were the four major measures of the establishment of the Welfare State?

Answer 7

National insurance act, national assistance act, industrial injuries act and national health service

Question 8

When and what was the Education Act/Butler Act?

Answer 8

1944. Provided compulsory free education within a tripartite system.

Question 9

When and what was the Family Allowances Act?

Answer 9

1945. Provided a weekly payment of five shillings for every additional child after the first.

Question 10

What was the impact of the 1942 Beveridge Report?

Answer 10

Led the government to adopt a radical reforming policy aimed at establishing the welfare state.

Question 11

What was the impact of the establishment of the Welfare State and other Acts?

Answer 11

Has been described as a social revolution. Now seen that rather than being the advent of revolutionary socialism, Labour’s moves towards a welfare state marked the high point of progressive liberalism.

Question 12

How did the Labour party change Britain economically through the years 1945-1951?

Answer 12

Adopted Keynesianism. Nationalism: from earliest days, Labour argued that the gov. has the right to direct the key aspects of the economy in order to create social justice. Clause IV of the party’s constitution committed it to nationalisation. Financial problems: the idealism that inspired the gov’s welfare and nationalisation programmes came at huge financial cost, which added to the financial burdens it had inherited in 1945. Devaluation: housing austerity alone could not meet the demands of Britain’s economy. Attlee gov. borrowed £6000m from the USA and Canada. The loan was intended to provide the basis for an industrial economy.

Question 13

Outline Keynesianism.

Answer 13

Dominant post-war theory. Developed by John Maynard Keynes. He believe that economic depressions, like the one in 1930, were avoidable if particular steps were taken. Calculated that if demand for industrial products could be sustained, decline could be prevented and jobs preserved.

Question 14

What was the impact of Labour’s adoption of Keynesianism in 1945-51?

Answer 14

It was a basic approach that was followed by all governments after 1951.

Question 15

What was the impact of Labour’s commitment to nationalism (Clause IV) during 1945-51?

Answer 15

The main industries and utilities nationalised between 1946-1949 were: coal, civil aviation, cable and wireless, the Bank of England, road transport, electricity services, gas, iron and steel.

Question 16

What was the impact of financial problems during Labour’s time in power from 1945-51?

Answer 16

By the end of the war, Britain was facing: debts of £4200 million, balance of payments deficit of £750 million, exports of manufactures dropped by 60% during wartime, invisible exports shrunk from £250m in 1938 to £120m in 1946.

Question 17

What was the impact of devaluation and Attlee gov. borrowing money during Labour’s time in power from 1945-51?

Answer 17

Since pound sterling was worth less than the dollar, Britain lost out heavily in trade dealings. Britain’s financial weakness led to a ‘run on the pound’ with foreign investors withdrawing their money from Britain in large amounts. In 1949, Attlee government reluctantly took the step of devaluing the pound. The exchange rate of the sterling was reduced by 30%.

Question 18

Strengths of Churchill as PM 1951-55

Answer 18

Gained a reputation for leading wartime Britain to victory.

Question 19

Weaknesses of Churchill as PM 1951-55

Answer 19

Not a great post-war PM. Suffered a serious stroke in 1953- left him with impaired speech. Churchill always thought of himself as an international statesman, not a domestic politician. Spent more time abroad than in Downing St. Believed his key priority was to ensure no new conflict would break out- particularly due to the dangers of nuclear war. Believed he was above party politics. His absenteeism meant that day-to-dat gov. was left with acting PM Eden and other key ministers like Butler and Macmillan. Tensions within his gov.- Butler, Macmillan and Eden didn’t get along & tensions between Eden (heir) & Churchill grew and he became impatient waiting for him to step down.

Question 20

Strengths of Eden as PM 1955-57

Answer 20

Talented politician who has always been thought of as a future PM. Rising political star in the 1930s and played a key role in WW2 as Churchills foreign secretary. Many times between 1951-55 he was acting PM in Churchill’s absence.

Question 21

Weaknesses of Eden as PM 1955-57

Answer 21

Anxious about making decisions and particularly conscious of his lack of knowledge on economic issues. Like Churchill, aimed to prevent industrial conflict which led to criticism he was too conciliatory with trade unions. Attempted to move Macmillan from Foreign Office to Treasury in 1955 but Macmillan was able to delay it. Decided to take action during the Suez Crisis 1956- ended in disaster. He came under heavy attack from Labour party in parliament and from sections of the national press. He was accused of lying to House of Commons- badly damaged his reputation

Question 22

Strengths of Macmillan as PM

Answer 22

Restored party unity. Appeared in full control for five years. Nicknamed ‘Supermac’ and led conservatives to a comfortable victory, pushing their parliamentary majority up to 100 seats. Post-war economic boom continued. Had the media in the palm of his hand.

Question 23

Strengths of Douglas Home as PM

Answer 23

Gained US approval for his firm anti-Communism.

Question 24

Weaknesses of Douglas Home as PM

Answer 24

Only had slight knowledge of economics and was unable to improve the deteriorating British balance-of-payments situation and antagonised numerous conservatives. Conservative defeat of 1964.

Question 25

Strengths of R.A. Butler

Answer 25

Architect of 1944 Education Act. Reshaped Labour’s mixed economy and welfare state that he inherited to be along more traditionally conservative lines. Became famous as the ‘best Prime Minister the conservatives never had’. Chancellor from 1951-1955.

Question 26

Weaknesses of R.A. Butler

Answer 26

Twice failed to become PM partly because his Toryism was viewed with suspicion by some party members, but also he lacked the ambition and ruthlessness to seize the opportunity presented to him.

Question 27

Reasons why the conservatives were dominant in 1951.

Answer 27

Macmillan had the media in the palm of his hand. Churchill gained his reputation for leading wartime Britain to victory in 1951-1955. Post-war economic boom was continuing. Labour party was in disarray and preoccupied with internal battles. 1952, Macmillan became Prime Minister which restored part unity after Eden as PM. In 1959 Macmillan, nicknamed ‘Supermac’, called a general election and led conservatives to a comfortable victory, pushing the majority to 100 seats.

Question 28

The post-war consensus

Answer 28

Sometimes called Butskellism. Understanding that after WW2 there was a great deal of agreement between main political parties. Included: belief in a mixed economy, support for the NHS and Welfare State, wish to ensure full employment & avoid mass
unemployment and working with both trade unions and employers.

Question 29

Mixed economy

Answer 29

A system in which the private and public sectors of the economy both operate.

Question 30

Butskellism

Answer 30

Somewhat satirical term named after Conservative politician Butler and Labour leader Gaitskell. Sometimes used in British politics to refer to the post-war consensus. Established in the 1950s.

Question 31

How did housing help Conservatives maintain dominance from 1951?

Answer 31

1951 Conservative manifesto promised to build 300k houses per year- this would rebuild the housing stock destroyed during the war and replace many of the slums that people has lived in before the war. Macmillan, as housing minister, oversaw the success of this- furthering Conservative dominance.

Question 32

How did education help Conservatives maintain dominance from 1951?

Answer 32

Continued tripartite system which developed after the Butler Act of 1944. Three types of school: grammar school, technical school and secondary modern. Financial restraints meant technical schools were rare but Eden did try to put emphasis on it during his brief time as PM. From beginning of 1960s, people were beginning to question whether this system was fair.

Question 33

How did social reforms help the Conservatives maintain dominance from 1951?

Answer 33

During Macmillan’s premiership: Clean Air Act 1956 to prevent smog of early 1950s, Housing and Factory Acts to prevent living and working conditions. Butler as home secretary (1957-62) more liberal & took action on more controversial issues e.g. homosexuality and death penalty. Homocide Act 1957 restricted when the death penalty would be imposed. 1957 Wolfenden commission recommended that homosexual behaviour no longer be a criminal act.

Question 34

What year was the Clean Air Act?

Answer 34

1956

Question 35

When was Butler home secretary?

Answer 35

1957-62

Question 36

When was the Homocide Act and Wolfenden commission?

Answer 36

1957

Question 37

What were the three examples of internal Labour divisions that led to Conservative political dominance?

Answer 37

Prescription charges, Clause IV and Nuclear weapons.

Question 38

What was Clause IV?

Answer 38

The clause in the Labour party’s constitution that committed it to nationalisation.

Question 39

What did the left of the Labour party say about Prescription charges?

Answer 39

Supporters of Bevan- disagreed strongly with prescription charges, believing the NHS should cover them (free at the point of delivery)

Question 40

What did the right of the Labour party say about prescription charges?

Answer 40

Believed it was necessary to introduce these charges to respond to the nation’s financial pressures.

Question 41

What was the outcome of internal Labour divisions over prescription charges?

Answer 41

Division broke out towards the end of the labour administration, 1945-51. It set up an ongoing rivalry between Gaitskell and Bevan and their respective supporters.

Question 42

What did the right of the Labour party say about Clause IV?

Answer 42

1959 Blackpool conference- Gaitskell put forward the idea of abolishing Clause IV of the party constitution.

Question 43

What did the left of the Labour party say about Clause IV?

Answer 43

Soon became clear that opposition from the left wing and union leaders would be fierce.

Question 44

Outcome of internal Labour divisions over Clause IV

Answer 44

Gaitskell backed down without putting it to a vote. Trade unions concerned that Labour might abandon Clause IV- lost support and trust.

Question 45

What did the left of the Labour party say about nuclear weapons?

Answer 45

Initially, Bevan opposed Britain developing nuclear weapons but in 1957 announced his opposition to unilateral nuclear disarmament saying ‘it would send a British Foreign Secretary naked into the conference chamber’. Many Labour left-wingers joined the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). Conflict within the left.

Question 46

What did the right of the Labour party say about nuclear weapons?

Answer 46

Scarborough conference 1960- Gaitskell makes emotional speech trying to convince the conference to reject unilateral nuclear disarmament.

Question 47

What was the outcome of internal Labour divisions over nuclear weapons?

Answer 47

Links between the CND and the Labour left may well have turned some voters away from labour. Cousins (leader of the Transport and General Workers Union) led fierce union opposition to Gaitskell over Britain’s nuclear weapons.

Question 48

Reasons for the Conservatives’ fall from power.

Answer 48

Conservatives’ began to appear out of touch, Conservative failures, Labour unity and Scandals.

Question 49

How did Conservatives’ beginning to appear out of touch contribute to Conservatives’ fall from power?

Answer 49

Macmillan out of touch: Named ‘The Night of The Long Knives’- Macmillan radically reshuffled his cabinet in 1962. Sacked 1/3 of it in attempts to ‘rejuvenate’ the government but this backfired severely. His image as a leader was impacted negatively and his party disunified.
New leader: After Macmillan forced to step down due to ill health, he had not prepared a successor. The party faced a divisive power struggle. Strong opposition to the two most obvious candidates: Butler and Lord Halisham so compromise candidate, Lord Home emerged. This ordeal made the Conservatives seem like they were stuck in a bygone age.

Question 50

How did Labour Unity contribute to Conservatives’ fall from power?

Answer 50

Wilson became party leader. Good credentials as a man of the left but his policies were of the centre ground so he attracted right-wing support. He understood that to win elections Labour needed to appeal far beyond its core vote. Appeared dynamic and progressive and embraced the modern world and its challenges- some even likened him to American president John F. Kennedy. Was a stark contrast to Conservatives’ ex-earl whose public image remained one of privilege.

Question 51

How did Conservative failures contribute to Conservatives’ fall from power?

Answer 51

Economic failures: After growing concerns about the economy, Britain made an application to join the EEC in 1961, this was rejected in 1963 after being vetoed by the French president. This was a very personal policy setback for Macmillan and it can be argued that he never fully recovered politically.