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IMS: Microanatomy > Testis and Male Reproductive Tract > Flashcards

Testis and Male Reproductive Tract Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the Testes

A
  1. Exocrine secretion of male gametes and fluids allowing their passage from the testis.
    • “Holocrine” fashion
  2. Major site of endocrine secretion of androgens
    • Testosterone - Leydig cells
    • DHT
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2
Q

Testes

Development

A
  • Formed in the abdominal cavity
  • Descend prenatally: abdominal cavity ⇒ inguinal canal ⇒ scrotum.
  • Carries along an out-pocketing of peritoneum ⇒ processus vaginalis
  • This loses connection with peritoneal cavity ⇒ tunica vaginalis
    • overlies the anterior and lateral surfaces of the testis
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3
Q

Cryptorchidism

A

Failure of the testis to descend.

  • Can result in sterility if not surgically corrected during childhood.
  • Testosterone production maintained resulting in normal male secondary sex characteristics.
  • Associated with increased incidence of testicular cancer.
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4
Q

Testes

Temperature Regulation

A

Testis suspended within scrotal sac and maintained at 2-3° below core body temperature.

Required for spermatogenesis.

Methods of temperature regulation include:

  1. Contraction of cremaster muscle
    • pulls testes towards inguinal canal
    • increases temperature
    • cremaster is skeletal muscle not under voluntary control
  2. Pampiniform plexus surrounds testicular artery
    • forms counter-current heat exchange system
    • cools arterial blood before it enters testis
  3. Tunica dartos of hypodermis contains longitudinal smooth muscle
    • contracts in response to cold
    • wrinkles scrotal skin drawing testes towards body
  4. Scrotal skin
    • thin and hairy
    • contains sebaceous and sweat glands
    • little or no subcutaneous adipose tissue
    • scrotal sweating and thin scrotal wall dissipates heat
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5
Q

Organization of the Testis

A
  1. Tunica albuginea
    • thick dense irregular fibrous CT capsule covering testis
    • CT septa extend inward dividing testis into ~ 250 pyramidal lobules
    • each lobule with 1-4 seminiferous tubules
    • covered partially by mesothelium of visceral layer of tunica vaginalis
  2. Mediastinum testis
    • Thickened area of tunica albuginea at posterior surface
    • supports nerves, vessels, and ducts including rete testis
      • anastomosing set of channels directing spermatozoa out of testis
  3. Tunica vasculosa
    • innermost part of the tunica albuginea
    • loose CT
    • contains numerous blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics
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6
Q

Tunica Vaginalis

A
  • Closed sac lined by mesothelium
  • Parietal layer lines the wall of the sac
  • Visceral layer covers part of testis & part of epididymis
    • In direct contact w/ tunica albuginea
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7
Q

Seminiferous Tubules

A

Site of spermatozoa production.

  • U-shaped tubule which starts and ends in mediastinum
  • Lined by seminiferous epithelium
    • Unusual & complex stratified epithelium
  • Surrounded by tunica propria
    • collagen fibrils
    • several layers of myoepithelial cells ⇒ myoid cells
      • lie just outside thick basal lamina
      • constraction assists spermatozoa/fluid movement
  • Pre-pubescent seminiferous “tubules”
    • Contains cords with no lumen
    • Two cell types
      • Gonocytes ⇒ precursors of spermatogonia
        • round with cental spherical nuclei
      • Sertoli-like cells
  • Post-pubescent seminiferous tubules
    • Contains supportive sertoli cells
    • Spermatogenic cells found in mosaic pattern
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8
Q

Sertoli Cell

Functions

A
  1. Physically support spermatogenic cells
  2. Control movement of spermatogenic cells through seminiferous epithelium
  3. Mediate movement of steroids and metabolites
  4. Secretory:
    • Androgen-binding protein
      • concentrates testosterone in seminiferous epithelium and proximal genital duct system
    • Estradiol
      • regulation of steroid production by Leydig cells
    • Inhibin
      • regulation of gonadotropin release by pituitary gland
    • Substances that nourish and facilitate transport of spermatozoa
  5. Phagocytize degenerating spermatogenic cells and residual bodies
  6. Secretes fluid that pushes sperm out of the testis
  7. During embryogenesis, secretes Mullerian-inhibiting factor (MIF) aka anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH)
    • suppresses development of the female reproductive tract
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9
Q

Sertoli Cell

Structure

A
  • Columnar cells which span entire height of seminiferous epithelium
    • Basal lamina ⇒ tubule lumen
  • Complex lateral and apical processes
  • Euchromatic nucleus with prominent nucleolus
    • ovoid to triangular with 1-2 deep folds
    • basally located
  • Adjacent sertoli cells & spermatogonia joined via special junctional complexes
    • junctions located near the basal end of lateral plasma membranes
    • forms blood-testis barrier
    • forms basal & adluminal compartments of seminiferous epithelium
  • Extensive infoldings of lateral plasma membrane
  • Contain inclusion bodies of Charcot-Böttcher
    • slender crystalloid composed of filament bundles
  • Do not proliferate
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10
Q

Sertoli Cell

Junctional Complexes

A

Adjacent sertoli cells joined via unique junctional complexes to form the blood-testis barrier.

  • Many close appositions of adjacent membranes form an extremely tight junction
  • Flattened cisternae of SER parallel to membranes
  • Hexagonally packed actin filament bundles between SER cisternae and membranes
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11
Q

Blood Testis Barrier

A
  • Formed via Sertoli cell junctional complexes
  • Seminiferous epithelium divided into two compartments:
    1. Basal compartment
      • contains spermatogonia and young primary spermatocytes
      • developing spermatocytes move between Sertoli cells despite junctions to reach next compartment
    2. Adluminal compartment
      • contains all other stages of spermatogenesis
      • where meiosis and spermiogenesis occurs
  • Forms unique microenvironments
  • Restricts movement of molecules (specifically Ab) from surronding CT into adluminal compartment
    • Protects late stage spermatogenic cells from immune attack
  • Failure of blood-testis barrier can result in infertility
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12
Q

Spermatogenic Cells

A

Spermatogenic cells undergo mitosis then meiosis to form spermatozoa.

Four major cell types in spermatogenic lineage:

  1. Spermatogonia
  2. Spermatocytes
  3. Spermatids
  4. Spermatozoa

Meiosis produces four haploid spermatids from each primary spermatocyte.

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13
Q

Spermatogonia

A
  • Small primitive germ cells
  • Located next to basal lamina
  • Enveloped apically by Sertoli cells
  • Stem cells of male germ line
  • Divide via mitosis after puberty and some differentiate into:
    • Dark type A spermatogonia
      • dark slightly flattened nuceli
      • usually quiescent
      • occasionally divide via mitosis to reproduce themselves or form type A spermatogonia
    • Pale type A spermatogonia
      • pale slightly flattened nuclei
      • divide via mitosis to reproduce themselves or form pale type B spermatogonia
    • Type B spermatogonia
      • round nuclei
      • divide via mitosis to reproduce themselves or formprimary spermatocytes
      • cells are commited to becoming sperm at this stage
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14
Q

Primary Spermatocytes

A
  • Undergo meiosis I
  • Largest spermatogenic cells
  • Nuclei with condensing chromosomes at various stages of meiotic division
    • Prophase longest at ~ 22 days and most found in this stage
  • Daughter cells are secondary spermatocytes
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15
Q

Secondary Spermatocytes

A
  • Divide rapidly therefore difficult to find in sections
  • Undergoes meiosis II
    • Reduces DNA content and chromosome number to 1N
  • Daughter cells are spermatids
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16
Q

Spermatids

A
  • Nuclei with highly condensed chromatin
  • Located near lumen of tubule
  • Do not divide
  • Early spermatids
    • recently formed
    • small round cells with round nuclei
  • Late spermatids
    • look more like mature sperm
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17
Q

Spermiogenesis

Golgi Phase

A

The morphological differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Can be divided into four phases:

Stage 1: Golgi Phase

  • PAS+ granules accumulate in Golgi complex and coalesce
  • Forms a single acrosomal granule within acrosomal vesicle
  • Vesicle positioned at anterior pole of nucleus
  • Centrioles migrate to opposite pole
  • Distal centriole forms presumptive flagellum with 9+2 microtubule structure
    • Constitues axoneme of sperm tail
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18
Q

Spermiogenesis

Cap or Early Acrosomal Phase

A

The morphological differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Can be divided into four phases:

Stage 2: Cap or Early Acrosomal Phase

  • Acrosomal vesical flattens over nucleus forming acrosomal cap
    • contains hydrolytic enzymes needed for penetration of zona pellucida of ovum
    • released during acrosome reaction of fertilization
  • Nuclear evelope in contact with cap looses nuclear pores and thickens
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19
Q

Spermiogenesis

Late Acrosomal Phase

A

The morphological differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Can be divided into four phases:

Stage 3: Late Acrosomal Phase

  • Spermatid rotates so acrosome basal and developing tail luminal
  • Nucleus flattens and elongates displacing cytoplasm posteriorly
  • Cytoplasmic microtubules organize into cylindrical manchette
    • temporarily sequesters proteins needed for elongation of tail
  • Centrioles approach nucleus and form connecting piece/neck region uniting nucleus with flagellum
    • 9 outer dense fibers (ODF) develop from modified centrioles
  • Mitochondria wrap around proximal flagellum forming mitochondrial sheath
    • characteristic of middle piece of sperm tail
  • Distal flagellum surrounded by fibrous sheath to form principal piece
  • Tip of flagellum lacks fibrous sheath ⇒ end piece
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20
Q

Spermiogenesis

Maturation phase

A

The morphological differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Can be divided into four phases:

Stage 4: Maturation phase

  • Excess cytoplasm pinched off as residual bodies
    • includes cytoplasmic bridges joining clonally related spermatids
    • phagocytized by Sertoli cells
  • Individual spermatozoa released into lumen of seminiferous tubule ⇒ spermiation
  • Sperm are morphologically mature upon release but only become motile in the epididymis
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21
Q

Spermatozoan Morphology

A
  1. Head
    • Elongated and highly heterochromatic nucleus
    • Acrosome
      • Large flattened lysosome that covers anterior 2/3 of nucleus
  2. Tail subdivded into 4 regions
    • Neck (connecting piece)
      • modified centrioles
    • Middle piece
      • Mitochondrial sheath
      • 9 outer dense fibers
      • Axoneme of flagellum (9+2 arrangement of microtubules)
    • Principal piece
      • fibrous sheath replaces mitochondria
      • 7 outer dense fibers
      • Axoneme
    • End piece
      • only contains axoneme
        • loses characteristic 9+2 arrangement towards the end
22
Q

Cycles of Seminiferous Epithelium

A
  • 6 stages characterize seminiferous epithelium during spermatogenic maturation
  • Stages occur in a mosaic pattern without waves
    • wave ⇒ distance along tubule length required to accomodate all stages
  • Each stage has a specific grouping of spermatogenic cell types
  • Cycle ⇒ time it takes a region to pass through all 6 stages ⇒ 16 days
  • Complete differentiation of gamete from spermatogonium to mature spermatozoa takes 74 days.
  • Passage through male reproductive tract to epidydymis takes 12 days.
  • Takes a minimum of 86 days from dark type A spermatogonium to ejaculated sperm.
23
Q

Testicular Interstitial Tissue

A
  • Abundant fenestrated capillaries
  • CT, lymphatics, and nerve fibers
  • Leydig cells
24
Q

Leydig Cells

A
  • Intersitial cells of the testes
  • Produce testosterone
    • appear during embryogenesis due to HCG stimluation
    • regress until puberty
    • resume testosterone synthesis at puberty in response to pituitary hormones specifically LH
    • secrete into fenestrated capillaries
    • enzymes involved in testosterone synthesis located in mitochondria and SER
  • Large rounded or polygonal cells
    • pale foamy eosinophilic cytoplasm
    • many small lipid droplets
    • extensive SER
    • contains enlongated proteinaceous crystals of Reinke
      • unknown function
  • Inactive cells resemble fibroblasts in prepubertal boys
25
Q

Hormonal Regulation

Male Reproduction

A

Activation

  1. LH from anterior pituitary stimulates testosterone synthesis by Leydig cells.
  2. Testosterone stimulates sperm production:
    1. Indirectly by acting on Sertoli cells
    2. Directly by acting on spermatogenic cells
  3. FSH from anterior pituitary stimulates Sertoli cells to synthesize androgen-binding protein
    1. Concentrates testosterone in seminiferous tubules at levels high enough to sustain spermatogenesis

Negative Feedback

  1. Testosterone inhibits release of LH from anterior pituitary
  2. Sertoli cells secrete inhibin
    1. Inhibits FSH and LH secretion by anterior pituitary
26
Q

Male Reproductive Tract

A

Responsible for the production of semen.

27
Q

Semen

A
  • Fluid consisting of spermatozoa and seminal fluid
  • Mostly derived from seminal vesicles and prostate gland
  • ~ 3 ml with 50-150 million sperm/ml
    • 20% abnormal
    • 25% immotile
  • Alkaline
    • Helps neutralize acidic urethra and vagina
  • Contains prostaglandins
    • Aids in moving sperm through male and female reproductive tracts
28
Q

Excurrent Duct System

Structure and Function

A
  • Functions:
    • Transportation of spermatozoa from test out of body
    • Secretion by accessory glands
    • Delivery of speramtozoa into female reproductive tract
  • Components:
    1. Straight tubules (tubuli recti)
    2. Rete testis
    3. Ductuli efferentes (efferent ductules)
    4. Ductus epididymis
    5. Ductus deferens (vas deferens)
    6. Ejeculatory duct
    7. Urethra
29
Q

Straight Tubules

(Tubuli recti)

A
  • Short, straight tubules
  • Joins the seminiferous tubules with rete testis
  • Found near the mediastinum at both ends of each U-shaped seminiferous tubule
  • Epithelium:
    • first part ⇒ only Sertoli cells
    • near termination ⇒ narrows and changes to simple cuboidal
      • composed of non-Sertoli cells
30
Q

Rete Testis

A
  • Series of very irregular channels
  • Located within the mediastinum
  • Receive sperm from tubuli recti
  • Empty into efferent ductules
  • Lined by simple low cuboidal to low columnar epithelium
  • Apical surface:
    • short microvilli
    • single flagellum
31
Q

Efferent ductules

(Ductuli efferentes)

A
  • 10-20 ducts connect rete testis with epididymis
  • Scalloped appearance of epithelium due to groups of alternating:
    • Tall ciliated columnar cells
      • Only portion of tract with motile cilia
      • Helps move sperm towards epididymis
    • Low nonciliated cells
      • Absorb fluid produced in seminiferous tubules
      • Contributes to drawing sperm out of testis
    • ​Basal stem cells - few in number
  • Single layer of circular smooth muscle
  • Coils into several conical masses ⇒ coni vasculosi
  • Bases of coni vasculosi unite to form head of epididymis
32
Q

Ductus Epididymis

A
  • One long tortuous tube with 3 parts: Head, Body, Tail
  • Lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium of uniform height
  • Single layer of circular smooth muscle in head and body
    • Gradually increases in thickness
  • Inner and outer longitudinal layer with middle circular layer of smooth muscle in the tail
  • Principal cells:
    • Have sterocilia (long non-motile microvilli) that reabsorb fluid
  • First part of duct system that contains lymphocytes called halo cells
  • Sperm mature and become motile here.
  • Tail region acts as reservoir for sperm.
33
Q

Capacitation

A
  • Initiated due to conditions found in female reproductive tract
  • Includes development of hypermobility
    • stronger whip-like flagellar motion
    • required to penetrate the egg
    • Ion channels in sperm plasma membrane involved
      • Ex. Hv1 channel (transports H+)
  • Results in the ability to fertilize an egg
34
Q

Ductus Deferens

(Vas Deferens)

A
  • Thick walled muscular tube
  • Part of the spermatic cord
  • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
    • Shorter than epididymis
  • Shorter stereocilia
  • Muscularis consists of inner & outer longitudinal layer with middle circular layer of smooth muscle
  • Ends distally with the ampulla
    • Lumen widens
    • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with folds
35
Q

Ejaculatory Duct

A
  • Formed by the union of vas deferens with duct of the seminal vesicle
  • Two ejaculatory ducts open into prostatic urethra at colliculus seminalis
  • Pseudostratified to simple columnar epithelium
36
Q

Prostatic Urethra

A
  • passes through prostate gland
  • upper region ⇒ transitional epithelium
  • lower region ⇒ stratified or pseudostratified columnar
  • receives two ejaculatory ducts and ducts of prostatic glands
37
Q

Membranous Urethra

A
  • Part that passes through the urogenital diaphragm
  • Stratified columnar epithelium
  • Fibroelastic lamina propria
  • Surrounded by the skeletal muscle of urogenital diaphragm which forms the external urethral sphincter
38
Q

Penile “Spongy” Urethra

A
  • Portion that passes through the corpus spongiosum
  • Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
    • Except at distal end near external orifice ⇒ becomes stratified squamous epithelium
    • Patches of both as well as stratified columnar often found side by side
  • Receive ducts from:
    • Bulbourethral glands
    • Glands of Littré
39
Q

Spermatic Cord

A
  • Includes:
    • Vas deferens
    • Testicular artery
    • Pampiniform plexus of veins
    • Cremaster muscle
40
Q

Seminal Vesicles

Structure & Development

A
  • Paired glands
  • Duct of each gland unites with vas deferens to form ejaculatory duct
  • Single, highly coiled, wide-bore tube
    • Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
    • Mucosal folds form saclike invaginations and arcades
    • Creates distinctive “honeycomb” appearance of lumen
  • Inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle
  • Mesonephric (Wolffian) duct gives rise to vas deferens & seminal vesicles are outgrowths of the vas.
41
Q

Seminal Vesicles

Functions

A
  • Contributes over half the volume of semen
  • Viscous whitish yellow product
  • Secretions include:
    • fructose ⇒ main metabolic substrate for sperm
    • ascorbic acid
    • flavins ⇒ fluorescent yellow pigments used in foresics for semen detection, gives sperm its pale color
    • semenogelins ⇒ proteins involved in semen coagulation, substrate for PSA
    • prostaglandins
  • Activity controlled by testosterone.
42
Q

Prostate

Structure & Development

A
  • Derived from the urogenital sinus
  • Musculo-glandular organ
    • Large amount of fibro-muscular stroma
      • smooth muscle and CT mixture
    • Epithelial glandular elements
      • 30-50 tubuloalveolar glands
  • Surrounds the prostatic urethra
  • Divided into multiple regions
43
Q

Prostate Regions

A
  • Periurethral zone
    • immediately around the urethra
  • Transitional zone
    • surrounds periurethral layer and extends anteriorly
  • Central zone
    • posterior to transitional zone
    • includes the ejaculatory ducts
  • Peripheral zone
    • surrounds distal part of periurethral zone
    • extends to capsule posteriorly and laterally
    • comprises the bulk of the organ
    • contains majority of prostatic glandular tissue
    • site of carcinomas
44
Q

Prostate Glands

A
  • Contains 30-50 tubuloalveolar glands
    • Lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium
    • Contains sparse flat basal cells
    • Contains concretions
      • calcified precipitated secretions
      • have concentric layers
      • seen in older men
  • Glands subdivided based on size and location:
    • Mucosal glands
      • small glands
      • immediately surrounds urethra in periurethral zone
      • seperated from remainder of prostate by smooth muscle
      • each empties seperately into the prostatic urethra
    • “True” prostatic glands (Prostate glands proper)
      • larger and highly branched
      • subdivided into:
        • Submucosal glands
          • transitional zone and a little in central zone
        • Main prostatic glands
          • peripheral zone
          • palpated via digital rectal exams
45
Q

Prostate Secretions

A
  • Colorless and less viscous secretion
  • Makes up 30-50% of seminal fluid volume
  • Contains:
    • citric acid
    • acid phosphatase
    • proteolytic enzymes ⇒​ liquefaction of semen
      • fibrinolysin
      • prostate-specific antigen (PSA)
  • Activity maintained by dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
46
Q

Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy

(BPH)

A
  • nodular hyperplasia
    • fibromuscular stroma
    • mucosal or submucosal glands
  • leads to urethral constriction
  • most frequent near urethra rather than in peripheral zone
  • usually treat with Finasteride
    • inhibits 5-𝛼-reductase: testosterone → DHT
47
Q

Prostatic Adenocarcinoma

A
  • Originates from glandular epithelium
    • Can be found anywhere but mostly in peripheral zone
    • Usually involves simple epithelium
  • Diagnostic tests:
    • PSA in blood
      • Other organs also release
      • Released with other conditions
    • Digital rectal exam
    • Transrectal ultrasound
48
Q

Bulbourethral glands

(Cowper’s glands)

A
  • Structure:
    • tubulo-alveolar glands
    • mucous secreting
    • located in the skeletal muscle of urogenital diaphragm
    • ducts empty into penile urethra
    • dependent on DHT
      • ​height of cells varies directly with levels
  • Secretion:
    • activated by erotic stimulation
    • major portion of pre-seminal fluid ejaculate
    • secretes alkaline mix of glycoproteins
      • neutralizes acidity of:
        • urine in urethra
        • vagina
      • helps lubricate urethra
    • ​small nutrient molecules
49
Q

Penis

A
  • Includes 3 erectile bodies
    • Paired corpora cavernosa
      • Dorsally located in erect penis
    • Single corpus spongiosum
      • ​Ventrally located in erect penis
      • Urethral glands of Littré found here
        • open into penile urethra
        • produces mucus to protect urethra
  • Tunica albuginea surrounds each erectile body
    • dense irregular CT
    • thicker in corpora cavernosa
      • fused to form incomplete midline septum
  • Composed of erectile tissue containing:
    • Caverous spaces ⇒ thin-walled irregularly shaped veins
      • Supplied by helicine arteries located in CT septa
    • CT trabeculae ⇒ seperates spaces
50
Q

Erection

A
  1. Helicine arteries contracted at baseline
    • Minimal blood entering erectile tissue
  2. Sexual arousal ⇒ PNS stimulation ⇒ relaxation of muscle in helicine walls
  3. Increased blood flow into cavernous spaces of erectile tissue ⇒ erection
  4. Filling compresses efferent veins against tunica albuginea ⇒ contributes to engorgement
    • Thinner tunica albuginea in corpus spongiosum prevents efferent vein compression ⇒ lower pressure ⇒ patent urethra for ejaculation
51
Q

Ejaculation

A

Occurs in two stages:

  1. Emission
    • Smooth muscle contraction in ductus deferens and seminal vesicles
      • Under sympathetic control
    • Delivers spermatozoa from epididymis ⇒ base of penile urethra
  2. Ejaculation
    • Reflex contraction of bulbospongiosus muscle
      • Skeletal muscle
      • Under somatic motor neuron control
      • Sensitized by sympathetic input during orgasm
    • Contraction ejects semen out penile urethra
52
Q

Detumescence

A
  1. Ejaculation followed by cessation of parasympathetic stimulation to vascular supply of penis
  2. Re-contraction of helicine arteries after orgasm
    • Reduces blood flow into erectile bodies
    • Decompresses efferent veins
    • Allows blood to drain
  3. Blood leaves vascular spaces ⇒ penis becomes flaccid

IMS: Microanatomy (16 decks)

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