Test Review Flashcards
Question 1:
Compare and contrast early and later management theories. How has the study of
organizational behavior evolved since the 1970’s?
Early Management theories were structured, efficiency focused, and hierarchical, while later theories emphasized flexibility, human behavior, and environmental adaption. Since the 1970s, Organizational Behavior has evolved from focusing solely on worker motivation to incorporating leadership, culture, technology, and psychology, making modern organizations more dynamic and people-centered.
Question 2:
The two perspectives on human behavior within organizations include the individual and the environment. Provide an example of how a moderator variable would help explain the relation between the individual and workplace productivity.
Answer:
The moderator for example, Job Autonomy, determines how much an individual’s motivation impacts their productivity. In flexible environments, motivated employees perform better, while in rigid settings, the same level of motivation may not lead to a high productivity.
Question 3:
Research finds that most conflict occurs informally and is hidden from view. Provide an example of when workplace conflict be considered functional? Be specific when describing
the circumstances.
Scenario:
A tech company is developing a new software feature. The product development team includes engineers, designers, and marketing specialist who have different perspectives on how the feature should be designed and launched. The conflict is that each person prioritizes different skills like the engineers prioritize funcionality and efficiency then the designers prioritize user experience and aesthetics while the marketing team argues that the feature must be released as soon as possible to meet customer demand and to stay ahead of competitors. This is a conflict is functional because the disagreement forces team members to articulate their priorities and concerns which leads to a more balanced and well-thought-out approach. This is an example of functional conflict because it improves decision-making, fosters innovation, and strengthens team collaboration, which is ultimately benefiting the organization.
Question 4:
Provide a concrete example of how both objective knowledge and skill development must be applied in real-world settings within the context of research and organizational behavior
as discussed in class.
For example a Human Resources team in a large retail company wants to understand and reduce employee turnover. To do this, they must apply both objective knowledge and skill development. They apply a theory such as Herzberg’s two factor theory which identifies motivators like recognition and career growth and also identifies hygiene factors such as salary and job security that can be affecting retention. To test their knowledge and develop solutions, the HR team conducts their own employee study using a research skill like data analysis. They would use statistical software such as excel to analyze turnover trends, they would perform correlation and regression analysis to determine the strongest predictors of turnover. By combining objective knowledge with skill development the HR team successfully applies research in a real-world setting, improving employee retention and organizational performance.
Question 5:
How do trends affecting managers affect challenges facing managers in the workplace?
Managers face evolving challenges due to shifts in technology, workforce demographics, globalization, and organizational expectations. For example a trend would be advances in tech and employee preferences have made remote and hybrid work models more common, a challenge for managers would be maintaining productivity and accountability. Ensuring employees stay engaged and meet performance expectations without direct supervision. For example a manger in a global company must balance flexibility while setting clear expectations and leveraging digital collaboration tools like slack and zoom. Successful managers bust be adaptive, communicative, and proactive to navigate these challenges while balancing organizational and employee needs.
Question 6:
How do the formal aspects of a work environment affect individual performance? What informal aspects of a work environment are important, and why?
Formal aspects are structured elements intentionally designed by an organization. These include job design and role clarity, organizational structure and hierarchy, policies and procedures, performance management and rewards, workplace tech and resources. A company with well-defined roles, fair promotion policies, and supportive leadership enables employees to perform efficiently and advance in their careers. Informal aspects refer to social dynamics and unwritten norms that shape workplace culture which include workplace relationships and social networks, company culture and values, leadership style and manager-employee relationship, recognition and appreciation. An employee in a company with a strong sense of teamwork and open communication is more likely to be engaged and perform well than one in a workplace with poor relationships and low morale. A balance of both is crucial for maximizing individual performance and organizational success.
Question 7:
A key element of Chapter 1 is the notion that change creates opportunities. Change occurs within the organization itself and within the organization’s environment. Provide an example of how social networking Websites have benefitted from this notion
Social networking websites have thrived by adapting to changes within organizations and their external environments, turning these shifts into opportunities for growth. For example the rise of tiktok and short film video content. In the late 2010s, there was a shift in user preference toward short form, visually engaging content driven by decreasing attention spans. Tiktok leveraged this change by creating a video-first platform optimized for short, engaging content with an algorithm that personalizes feeds. Tiktok became one of the fastest growing social networks, surpassing 1 billion users in just a few years. Social networking platforms like tiktok have successfully turned changes in user behavior and technology into opportunities, leading to massive growth and reshaping digital communication.
Question 8:
As a consultant for Workplace Solutions Consulting, you meet with members of the software development organization to document the multi-generational issues that have been reported—namely that people are not getting along and working well together. During your meeting, you notice that the individuals representing the Baby Boomers are
predominately white males, while the Millennials seem to be more of a diverse group. What questions would you ask to ascertain the nature of the multi-generational issues? What questions would you ask to understand if there may be other issues related to race
and gender?
To understand the core challenges between generations, I would ask how do different generations prefer to communicate (Emails, meetings, instant messaging)? And I would ask them what challenges have you faced when working with colleagues from a different generation? Since the Baby Boomers in the organization are predominantly white males, while Millennials are more diverse I would ask them if they feel that certain perspectives or ideas are dismissed more often than others? If so and why. I feel that by asking these questions, I would gain insight into both generational differences and potential diversity-related questions within the organization. This would help Workplace solutions consulting develop targeted strategies to foster better collaboration and mutual respect in the workplace.
Question 9:
Provide an example of how a workplace diversity issue would represent both social diversity and social progress.
An example would be like implementing Gender-inclusive Policies in a tech company. A major tech company recognizes a gender diversity issue – woman and non-binary employees are underrepresented in leadership roles and technical positions. This issue reflects both social diversity and social progress. The reason I say this is because the lack of gender diversity highlights differences in workplace demographics, career opportunities and leadership representation. The company can establish mentorship programs to support women and non – binary employees in career development. This example demonstrates how addressing a workplace diversity issue reflects both social diversity and social progress making changes to create an inclusive and equitable work environment.
Question 10:
While we learned that there are many gender-related differences in communication in the workplace, most recent research finds that factors such as education, and length of employment act as moderators in this relationship. Provide an example of how each
moderates the relation between gender-related differences in communication and workplace attitudes.
An example would be that a male and female manager in a financial firm have different communication styles. The male manager tends to be direct and assertive while the female prefers a collaborative and inclusive approach. Education and length of employment help moderate gender-related communication differences by reducing biases and fostering adaptability. Higher education exposes employees to diverse communication styles, making them more likely to appreciate both direct and collaborative approaches rather than associating them with gender norms. Similarly, longer tenure allows employees to adapt to different communication styles over time, shifting the focus from gender differences to clarity and effectiveness. As a result, workplace attitudes become more inclusive, valuing communication for its impact rather than traditional perceptions.
Question 11:
How do business perspectives affect our positions on diversity?
Business perspectives significantly influence positions on diversity by shaping how organizations view inclusion as either a strategic advantage or a compliance requirement. Companies that adopt a business case perspective see diversity as a driver of innovation, better decision-making, and market competitiveness. They recognize that diverse teams bring varied perspectives, enhance problem-solving, and improve customer relations, ultimately leading to higher profitability. On the other hand, organizations with a compliance-based perspective may focus on diversity primarily to meet legal requirements and avoid discrimination claims, which can lead to minimal, surface-level efforts rather than meaningful inclusion. A strong business perspective that values diversity as an asset rather than an obligation leads to more inclusive workplaces, fostering better collaboration, employee satisfaction, and long-term success.
Question 12:
Discuss how understanding the differences between individualism and collectivism will assist in developing cultural sensitivity in the workplace. Provide specific examples
Understanding individualism and collectivism fosters cultural sensitivity by improving communication and teamwork in diverse workplaces. Individualistic cultures, like the U.S., emphasize independence and direct communication, while collectivist cultures, like Japan, prioritize group harmony and indirect communication. For example, an American employee may take initiative independently, while a Japanese colleague may seek group consensus. Recognizing these differences helps managers adapt leadership styles, balance individual and team recognition, and create an inclusive environment that values diverse work approaches.
Question 13:
Why study workplace ethics from a theoretical perspective? What do we gain from this?
Studying workplace ethics from a theoretical perspective provides a structured framework for understanding moral decision-making, guiding behavior, and addressing ethical dilemmas. Ethical theories—such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics—help employees and leaders assess situations objectively, rather than relying solely on personal beliefs or emotions. For example, utilitarianism focuses on maximizing overall benefits, while deontology emphasizes duty and principles, offering different ways to evaluate ethical issues. By applying these theories, organizations can develop fair policies, improve corporate social responsibility, and foster a culture of integrity. Ultimately, studying ethics theoretically enhances critical thinking, consistency in ethical decision-making, and accountability in the workplace
Question 14:
How does understanding formal v. informal organizational structure assist in increasing awareness of diversity issues in the workplace?
Understanding formal vs. informal organizational structures helps identify diversity issues beyond official policies. While formal structures include diversity initiatives and hiring practices, informal dynamics—such as workplace culture and social networks—often influence real inclusion. For example, if leadership remains homogenous despite formal diversity efforts, hidden biases may exist. Recognizing both structures ensures diversity efforts go beyond policies to create a truly inclusive environment.
Question 15:
How can we use the Big Five to explain extremes in personality traits? How can these extremes become harmful in the workplace, and when are they unusual but productive of good outcomes?
The Big Five personality traits explain workplace behavior extremes, which can be harmful or beneficial. For example, high conscientiousness boosts productivity but may cause burnout, while low agreeableness can create conflict but aid tough decision-making. High extraversion fosters collaboration but may become distracting, and high neuroticism can increase stress but also enhance creativity. While extremes can be disruptive, they can also drive innovation and efficiency when managed effectively.
Question 16:
Discuss one instance when exercising independence in the workplace is beneficial and one instance when exercising conformity in the workplace is beneficial. When is each useful and why?
Independence is beneficial when problem-solving or innovating, as it allows employees to think creatively and propose new ideas. For example, a software developer who independently explores a new coding approach might improve efficiency and drive innovation. Independence is useful in roles requiring critical thinking and initiative, fostering progress and competitive advantage.
Conformity is beneficial when ensuring consistency and teamwork, such as following safety protocols in a manufacturing plant. When employees conform to standardized procedures, they reduce errors and maintain workplace safety. Conformity is useful in structured environments where collaboration, order, and reliability are essential for success.
Question 17:
Give an example of a moderating social perception variable in the relation between personality and workplace behavior
A moderating social perception variable shapes how personality affects workplace behavior. For example, organizational culture moderates the link between extraversion and leadership—in a collaborative workplace, extroverts may be seen as natural leaders, while in a quiet environment, they might be perceived as disruptive. This highlights how workplace norms influence the impact of personality traits.
Question 18:
How does attribution theory apply in workplace settings?
Attribution theory explains how people interpret the causes of others’ behavior in the workplace, influencing interactions and decision-making. For example, if a manager attributes an employee’s missed deadline to laziness (internal attribution) rather than work overload (external attribution), they may respond unfairly with criticism instead of offering support. Misattributions can lead to biases, misunderstandings, and poor morale, while accurate attributions foster better communication, trust, and effective management. Recognizing situational factors helps create a more supportive and fair work environment.
Question 19:
Provide an example of how the fundamental attribution error can be applied in the workplace. How is this related to the self-serving bias?
In the workplace, the fundamental attribution error occurs when a manager assumes an employee missed a deadline due to laziness (internal factor) rather than workload issues (external factor). This relates to the self-serving bias, where individuals credit success to their own abilities but blame failures on external factors. Both biases affect fairness in evaluations and workplace relationships.
Question 20:
Discuss the pros and cons of General mental ability (GMA) in relation to job performance, life satisfaction, and educational and occupational attainment.
General Mental Ability (GMA) predicts job performance, education, and career success, but has limitations. Pros: It enhances problem-solving, career advancement, and financial stability, improving life satisfaction. Cons: It overlooks emotional intelligence, can create teamwork challenges, and may lead to biased hiring. A balanced approach considering other skills is essential for workplace success.
Question 21:
Why is it important to study personality within the context of the workplace?
Studying personality in the workplace is essential for understanding how employees behave, communicate, and perform in different roles. It helps managers make better hiring decisions, improve team dynamics, and enhance leadership effectiveness. For example, knowing an employee’s conscientiousness can predict reliability, while extraversion may indicate success in customer-facing roles. Additionally, understanding personality can reduce workplace conflicts and improve job satisfaction by aligning roles with employees’ strengths. Ultimately, it creates a more productive, harmonious, and engaged workforce.
Question 22:
Explain the following diagram within the contest of the principles of interactional
psychology
The diagram reflects interactional psychology, showing that agreeableness affects productivity both directly and through the work group as a moderating factor. An agreeable employee enhances teamwork, which improves productivity, reinforcing the idea that behavior results from both personality and environment.
Question 23:
Discuss three qualities critical for ethical decision-making. How can you explain these
qualities as moderating variables?
Integrity, empathy, and accountability are key to ethical decision-making. Integrity ensures honesty, empathy promotes fairness, and accountability enforces responsibility. These act as moderating variables, shaping how individuals respond to ethical dilemmas based on situational factors.
Question 24:
Compare and contrast the behavioral interview with personality tests in terms of their
utility in the hiring process. Which would you prefer and why?
Behavioral interviews assess past experiences to predict job performance, while personality tests evaluate traits to gauge workplace behavior. Behavioral interviews offer job-specific insights, making them more reliable. I prefer behavioral interviews for their real-world relevance, though a mix of both is ideal.
Question 25:
Discuss three factors that contribute to the best training method you would choose for
your employees. How does each relate to the efficacy of a company’s ethics model
The best training method depends on engagement, relevance, and reinforcement. Engagement ensures employees stay involved, strengthening ethical awareness. Relevance ties ethics to real job scenarios, improving application. Reinforcement ensures continuous ethical behavior. Together, these factors support a strong ethics model within the company.
Utilizing the ABC Model, provide attitudinal statements within each context:
a. The newly implemented merit-based policy for salary increases.
b. The reorganization of your department as presented at the last company meeting.
c. The latest decision made by your taskforce leader regarding time off policy
a. Merit-Based Salary Increases
Affective: “I’m excited about the new policy because it feels fair and motivating.”
Behavioral: “I plan to work harder to maximize my chances of a salary increase.”
Cognitive: “This policy rewards performance, which should improve overall productivity.”
b. Department Reorganization
Affective: “I feel uncertain about the changes since they may disrupt our workflow.”
Behavioral: “I will adapt to the new structure and collaborate with my team to ensure a smooth transition.”
Cognitive: “Reorganization can improve efficiency, but clear communication is needed to minimize confusion.”
c. Time Off Policy Decision
Affective: “I’m frustrated because the new policy limits my flexibility.”
Behavioral: “I may need to adjust my scheduling to make the most of my available time off.”
Cognitive: “The policy aims to balance workload, but it could have been more flexible.”
The ABC Model of Attitudes consists of three components: Affective (emotional response), Behavioral (intended actions), and Cognitive (beliefs or thoughts).
Question 27:
Explain this diagram within the context of workplace attitude formation
Workplace attitudes are shaped by a combination of direct experiences on the job, like the work itself and relationships with colleagues, and social learning, which involves observing and interacting with others. These two forces combine to influence how employees feel and think about their work and the organization. Therefore, both personal experiences and the surrounding social environment contribute to attitude formation.
Question 28:
Discuss the role of organizational commitment as a moderating variable in the relation
between perceptions of a just workplace and willingness to accept job responsibilities
Organizational commitment strengthens the link between perceived workplace justice and taking on responsibilities. Those with high commitment are more likely to accept duties even with some perceived unfairness, while those with low commitment are less likely, especially if they see injustice.
Question 29:
Discuss the differences between mood and emotions and how they relate to workplace
productivity
Emotions are short-lived, intense reactions tied to a specific cause, whereas moods are more diffuse and enduring emotional states. Both influence productivity; positive emotions and moods generally enhance it by boosting motivation and creativity, while negative ones detract by increasing stress and hindering focus. Managing both is key to a positive and productive workplace.
Question 30:
Discuss the role of corporate culture as a moderator in the relation between job satisfaction
and performance.
Direct experience, like performing a task or interacting with colleagues, and social learning, such as observing others or hearing workplace gossip, combine to form our attitudes at work. These attitudes, which can be positive or negative, then influence our behavior and how we approach our jobs. Therefore, both what we do and who we interact with shape how we feel about our work.
Question 31:
Come up with a scenario in which Theory X (or Theory Y) is appropriate as a management
and motivational style (don’t like to work and threatened) and indicate why you believe
Theory X (or Theory Y) would work in this instance
Scenario: A construction crew needs to meet a critical deadline on a bridge project. Many workers are unskilled, temporary hires, and safety violations have been a recurring problem. The supervisor is under immense pressure from the client and fears significant financial penalties if the deadline is missed.
Short Response: Theory X is appropriate here due to the urgent need for compliance and control. Unskilled workers, time constraints, and safety concerns necessitate strict supervision, clear directives, and potential consequences (Theory X) to ensure the project is completed on time and safely.
Question 32:
Explain the role of valence in Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. How can this factor be
explained as a moderator in the relation between employee perceptions and productivity
Valence, the value an employee places on a reward, moderates the link between their perceptions (effort → performance → reward) and productivity. High valence strengthens this link; if they value the outcome, positive perceptions drive productivity. Low valence weakens it; even with strong perceptions, productivity is low if the reward is unvalued.
Question 33:
Compare and contrast the role of employee recognition programs and employee
involvement programs as they relate to workplace motivation
Recognition programs focus on appreciating past work, boosting morale by acknowledging contributions. Involvement programs empower employees by giving them a voice in decisions, increasing ownership and intrinsic motivation. While recognition is often more extrinsic, involvement leans towards intrinsic motivation, and both contribute to a more engaged and productive workforce when implemented effectively.
Question 34:
Provide two specific examples of how to define recognition as both intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic recognition stems from the inherent satisfaction of a job well done, like the personal pride in mastering a new skill. Extrinsic recognition involves external rewards, such as a public award for exceeding sales targets or a bonus for perfect attendance. Both types acknowledge contributions, but one focuses on internal fulfillment, the other on external validation.
Question 35:
What is the utility of understanding theories of motivation from a management
perspective. Which would be preferred if management is primarily interested in outcomes
produced as a function of intrinsic motivation. Your response should include an example.
Motivation theories help managers predict and influence employee behavior, creating a motivating work environment. For intrinsically motivated outcomes, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is preferred, as it focuses on autonomy, competence, and relatedness. For example, a manager using SDT might give a team more control over projects (autonomy), provide skill-building opportunities (competence), and foster collaboration (relatedness) to boost intrinsic drive.
Question 36:
Discuss each of the three constructs of motivation as a moderator variable when studying
the relation between locus of control and workplace productivity.
Expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance), instrumentality (belief that performance leads to rewards), and valence (value placed on rewards) all moderate the relationship between locus of control and productivity. For those with an internal locus of control, high expectancy, instrumentality, and valence strengthen the positive link to productivity. Conversely, low levels of these motivational constructs weaken or negate this link, especially for those with an external locus of control.
Question 37:
Provide an example of classical conditioning/operant conditioning in workplace behavior.
How could this behavior be extinguished?
Classical conditioning: A coworker flinches (response) at the sound of the boss’s booming voice (stimulus), associating it with past reprimands. Operant conditioning: A sales team increases cold calls (behavior) after receiving bonuses (reinforcement) for exceeding targets. Extinction occurs by consistently removing the stimulus (boss’s voice without reprimand) or reinforcement (no bonus despite calls).
Question 38:
Discuss how task-specific self-efficacy can be applied to social learning theory. In your
example discuss how this factor is a moderator in the relation between employee
perceptions and productivity.
Task-specific self-efficacy, belief in one’s ability to perform a task, influences social learning by determining if an observed success will motivate the observer to try it themselves. As a moderator, high self-efficacy strengthens the link between positive perceptions of a task and actual productivity, while low self-efficacy weakens it, even if the task is perceived as achievable.
Question 39:
How is the Big Five related to social learning and its effects in the workplace?
The Big Five personality traits influence how individuals engage in social learning and how they are affected by it. For example, more agreeable people may be more receptive to learning from colleagues, while more conscientious individuals might be more driven by personal experience. These traits affect what information is noticed, how it’s interpreted, and ultimately, how workplace attitudes and behaviors are shaped.
Question 40:
Discuss the psychological impact on goal setting through the lens of cognitive bias,
information framing, and emotion
Goal setting is vulnerable to cognitive biases (e.g., overconfidence in achieving a difficult goal), how information about the goal is framed (e.g., emphasizing potential gains vs. losses), and the emotions evoked by the goal (e.g., excitement vs. anxiety). These factors can influence goal choice, commitment, and ultimately, success, as they impact perception, motivation, and persistence.
Question 41:
Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of performance appraisals.
Advantages:
Feedback: Appraisals provide employees with valuable feedback on strengths and weaknesses, aiding development.
Motivation: They can motivate improved performance when tied to rewards or career advancement.
Disadvantages:
Bias: Appraisals are susceptible to rater bias, leading to unfair evaluations.
Stress: They can create anxiety and negatively impact morale, especially if feedback is poorly delivered.
Question 42:
Discuss the five characteristics of an effective appraisal system
Effective appraisal systems are valid (measuring what they intend to), reliable (consistent results over time), acceptable (seen as fair by employees), specific (providing clear feedback), and practical (easy to administer and understand).
Question 43:
Apply the principles of Kelly’s attribution theory to the following workplace situation:
“Sam’s work logs are unsatisfactory”. Using Kelly’s theory conclude both an internal as well
as an external attribution for this situation.
Internal Attribution: Sam’s unsatisfactory work logs are due to his lack of organization or poor time management skills (low distinctiveness, low consensus, high consistency).
External Attribution: Sam’s work logs are unsatisfactory because the new logging software is difficult to use and poorly designed (high distinctiveness, high consensus, low consistency).
Question 44:
Provide an example of how on-the-job stress can affect job performance. How can we learn
to spot this?
A stressed employee facing constant deadlines (on-the-job stress) might rush tasks, leading to errors and lower quality output, thus negatively impacting job performance. Spotting this involves observing increased irritability, missed deadlines, frequent absences, or declining work quality in the employee.
Question 45:
Apply the three phases of the GAS to reducing stress in the workplace.
To reduce workplace stress using the GAS phases: Alarm: Identify stressors (e.g., heavy workload) and acknowledge their impact. Resistance: Implement coping mechanisms (e.g., time management training, relaxation techniques). Exhaustion: Prevent burnout by promoting work-life balance, setting realistic expectations, and providing resources (e.g., employee assistance programs).
Question 46:
Discuss the differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused approaches to
coping. Which is preferred and when?
Problem-focused coping directly addresses the stressor (e.g., negotiating deadlines).
Emotion-focused coping manages the feelings caused by stress (e.g., relaxation techniques). Problem-focused is generally preferred when the stressor is controllable; emotion-focused is better when the stressor is unchangeable, helping manage distress.
Question 47:
What kind of elements do you believe contribute to stress at work ? Why? Can you
conceptualize them as individual stressors or organizational stressors and why?
Elements contributing to workplace stress include heavy workloads, tight deadlines, lack of control, poor relationships, and job insecurity. These can be both individual (e.g., time management skills) and organizational stressors (e.g., unrealistic expectations). It’s a mix because individual vulnerabilities interact with workplace factors to create stress.
Question 48:
Discuss how positive and negative stress interact with individual difference factors to
produce issues in the workplace
Positive stress (eustress) can motivate and enhance performance, but excessive or prolonged stress (distress) leads to negative outcomes. Individual differences like personality, coping skills, and resilience influence how people perceive and react to both types of stress. A resilient person might thrive under pressure (eustress), while someone with high anxiety might crumble even with minor stressors, impacting performance, well-being, and workplace relationships.
Question 49:
Discuss the experience of stress through the lens of the three types of symptoms.
Stress manifests through physical symptoms (e.g., headaches, fatigue), psychological symptoms (e.g., anxiety, irritability), and behavioral symptoms (e.g., changes in eating habits, social withdrawal). These categories reflect how stress impacts the body, mind, and actions of an individual.
Question 50:
How is stress prevented within the workplace? Provide evidence of three specific ways this
is done.
Stress prevention in the workplace involves organizational and individual strategies. Examples include: 1) Redesigning jobs for more autonomy and manageable workloads (evidenced by studies showing reduced burnout with increased job control). 2) Offering wellness programs like mindfulness training or exercise classes (evidenced by research linking these to lower stress hormones). 3) Promoting a supportive work environment with open communication and work-life balance initiatives (evidenced by studies demonstrating lower stress levels in organizations with strong social support).
